Topic Development

In 1952, computer pioneer Grace Hopper developed the first compiler, a revolutionary program that translated English-like commands into machine-readable code. Prior to this invention, programming required writing tedious strings of numbers or symbols, a task prone to human error and restricted to a small group of mathematicians. By allowing programmers to write in a language closer to human speech, Hopper’s compiler democratized software development and laid the groundwork for modern programming languages. [4]

Which choice best concludes the paragraph at [4] by emphasizing the long-term impact of Hopper’s compiler on the field of computer science?

Consider the following draft of a passage about marine biology:

[1] __________________________________________________ [2] In December 1938, Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, a curious museum curator in East London, South Africa, received a call from a local trawler captain who had brought in an unusual catch. Amid the pile of sharks and rays, she noticed a strange, five-foot-long fish with thick, iridescent blue scales and lobe-like fins that resembled limbs. Sensing its importance, she brought the specimen to her museum and contacted ichthyologist J.L.B. Smith. Smith famously identified the fish as a coelacanth, a primitive species previously known only from fossils dating back to the Cretaceous period.

This 'living fossil' provided biologists with a rare opportunity to study a creature whose anatomy had remained virtually unchanged for millions of years. Its lobe-like fins, which contain bones arranged similarly to those in land vertebrates, offered a direct physical link between ancient fish and the first tetrapods that crawled onto land. The discovery not only filled a massive gap in the fossil record but also prompted scientists to reconsider how species adapt over vast spans of geological time.

Which choice, if added at [1], provides the most effective introduction to the passage by establishing its central thesis?

The following is a draft of an essay about the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge.

[1] __________________________________________________ [2] When her husband, Washington Roebling, became bedridden with decompression sickness in 1872, Emily stepped in as the unofficial chief engineer. She spent the next eleven years managing day-to-day operations, liaising with city officials, and mastering advanced mathematics and engineering concepts. Her tireless dedication ensured the completion of what was then the longest suspension bridge in the world.

[3] Beyond her administrative and technical contributions, Emily's leadership challenged nineteenth-century gender norms in professional engineering. She was the first person to cross the completed bridge by carriage, carrying a rooster as a symbol of victory. Today, a plaque on the bridge honors her, recognizing that the monumental structure is a testament to her intellect and determination.

Which of the following introductory sentences best establishes the main topic and thesis of the passage?

The following sentences are from a draft of an essay about avian migration. What is the most logical order of these sentences to support the central claim that physiological adaptations enable the bar-headed goose to fly at high altitudes?

Passage:

In 1931, engineering draftsman Harry Beck proposed a revolutionary design for the London Underground map. Before Beck's innovation, transit maps attempted to represent geographic distances accurately, which resulted in a cluttered, confusing tangle of lines in the congested city center. Beck realized that passengers traveling underground cared primarily about how to navigate between stations rather than their precise location on the surface. He simplified the complex network into a clean, schematic diagram, restricting lines to horizontal, vertical, or 45-degree angles and spacing stations evenly. Initially rejected by officials as too radical, the map was trial-printed in 1933 and became an instant success with the public. ________

Question:

The writer wants to add a concluding sentence to the paragraph that reinforces the paragraph's main focus on the lasting impact of Beck's design. Which of the following sentences best achieves this goal?

Passage Excerpt:

In the early morning mist of the Olympic Peninsula, biologist Maria Lopez searches for the elusive coastal tailed frog. This unique amphibian does not vocalize. Instead, [1] it spends its time in the local area.

The writer wants to replace the underlined portion [1] with a phrase that provides the most specific illustration of the frog’s physical adaptation to its fast-flowing aquatic habitat. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

A writer is editing a draft of an essay about the history of synthetic dyes. The writer is considering adding the following sentence after the first sentence (which ends with 'home laboratory'):

'Quinine was traditionally extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree, which grew primarily in South America.'

Should the writer make this addition?

In 1856, eighteen-year-old chemist William Henry Perkin was attempting to synthesize quinine, a treatment for malaria, in his home laboratory. Instead of obtaining a clear medicine, he produced a dark, oily sludge. Rather than discarding the failed experiment, Perkin washed the beaker with alcohol and noticed a vibrant purple residue. This accidental discovery led to the creation of mauveine, the world's first synthetic aniline dye. Perkin quickly patented the dye and established a factory to mass-produce it, revolutionizing both the fashion and chemical industries.

Stepwells, known as *baoris* or *vavs* in western India, are subterranean architectural marvels constructed to harvest rainwater in arid regions. Descending multiple stories into the earth to reach the water table, these structures feature elaborate flights of stone steps and pillared pavilions designed to provide shade. [1] In addition to their practical function, stepwells served as vital social hubs and places of worship, particularly for women who gathered there daily to collect water.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence at Point [1]:

Rainwater harvesting is still practiced in many dry climates around the world today.

Should the writer make this addition?

The following is a draft of the beginning of a passage about the history of synthetic dyes:

[1] __________________________________________________ Eighteen-year-old chemistry student William Henry Perkin was working in his home laboratory in London, attempting to synthesize quinine, a scarce drug used to treat malaria. Instead of the clear medicine he hoped to produce, his experiments left behind a dark, sludge-like residue. However, when Perkin attempted to wash the beaker with alcohol, he noticed that the substance dissolved to reveal a brilliant, fade-resistant purple hue.

Which of the following sentences, if added at the beginning of the passage, would best introduce the main topic of the passage?

The following is a draft of an essay about a pioneering paleontologist.

[1]
Born in 1799 in a seaside town in Dorset, England, she was not trained as a scientist. Yet, she spent her days searching the cliffs of Lyme Regis for what she called "curiosities." Her discoveries of prehistoric marine reptiles, including the first ichthyosaur and plesiosaur skeletons ever correctly identified, challenged the scientific community's understanding of the history of the Earth.

[2]
At the time, geology was a field dominated by wealthy gentlemen who often purchased Anning's finds to display in museums. Although she possessed an extraordinary ability to locate and reconstruct fossils, her gender and lower social status prevented her from fully participating in the scientific societies of nineteenth-century Britain. Despite these barriers, her work laid the groundwork for major developments in paleontology and evolutionary theory.

Which of the following sentences, if placed at the beginning of the passage, would best introduce the main topic of the essay?

The following is an excerpt from a passage about the history of timekeeping in the United States.

[1]
____________________________. Before the late nineteenth century, towns and cities across the United States set their clocks by the sun, resulting in thousands of local times. For instance, noon in Chicago was several minutes different from noon in Milwaukee. This localized timekeeping caused massive confusion for the rapidly expanding railroad network, which required precise timetables to prevent train collisions and coordinate schedules.

[2]
To solve this problem, railroad companies implemented a system of four standard time zones in November 1883. Despite initial resistance from local governments that preferred "God's time," the efficiency of the railroad zones quickly won over the public, eventually leading Congress to pass the Standard Time Act of 1918.

Which choice most effectively introduces the paragraph and establishes the primary focus of the passage?

Marie Tharp began transforming raw sonar data collected from the Atlantic Ocean into detailed topographic maps in the early 1950s. At the time, she was barred from research vessels due to her gender, so she relied on her colleague Bruce Heezen to gather the depth measurements. As Tharp meticulously plotted the points, she noticed a massive, V-shaped rift running down the center of the ocean floor. Heezen initially dismissed her findings as 'girl talk,' but Tharp persisted, convinced that this feature was a rift valley that proved the theory of continental drift.

Ultimately, Heezen was convinced after he mapped the epicenters of undersea earthquakes, which aligned perfectly with Tharp's rift valley. [1] Furthermore, they decided to publish a map of their findings in 1977.

Which choice most effectively concludes the passage by highlighting the ultimate success of Tharp's research and its impact on the scientific understanding of Earth's geology?

Passage Excerpt:

In the early nineteenth century, a Cherokee silversmith named Sequoyah became fascinated by the 'talking leaves'—the written language used by European settlers. Though he could neither read nor write English, Sequoyah spent years developing a writing system for his native Cherokee tongue. He began by drawing pictures to represent words, but this proved too cumbersome, so he ultimately created eighty-five symbols representing distinct syllables. By 1821, his syllabary was complete, allowing the Cherokee Nation to quickly establish its own newspaper, *The Cherokee Phoenix*.

Given that all the choices are factual, which choice best emphasizes the physical effort and determination Sequoyah demonstrated while developing his writing system?

In the mid-twentieth century, the design of workspaces underwent a dramatic transformation with the introduction of the "Action Office" system. Developed by Robert Propst in 1964, this layout aimed to increase productivity by providing workers with flexible, customizable components, such as standing desks and movable display shelves. [1] Propst believed that office workers were more creative when they had freedom of movement and visual privacy. Ironically, corporate employers stripped away the system's dynamic elements to maximize space, leading to the birth of the standardized, sterile office cubicles that dominate workspaces today.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence at Point [1]:

"Propst, who held over 120 patents during his career, also designed a timber-harvesting machine and a specialized hospital bed."

Should the writer make this addition here?

[1]
In 1903, during a winter visit to New York City, Mary Anderson observed a trolley driver struggling to see through the freezing sleet. The driver frequently opened the front window to wipe the wet snow off the windshield by hand, exposing the passengers to the cold and delaying the trip. To solve this problem, Anderson sketched a design for a rubber blade attached to a hand-operated lever inside the vehicle. She patented her invention, the windshield wiper, in 1903, but manufacturing companies initially rejected it, believing the device would distract drivers. However, as the automobile industry boomed in the following decades, Anderson's design proved indispensable. [2]

The writer wants to add a concluding sentence after sentence [2] that highlights the long-term impact of Anderson's invention on modern transportation. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

The following is an excerpt from an essay about deep-sea exploration.

In 1977, researchers aboard the research submersible *Alvin* made a startling discovery at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean near the Galápagos Islands. They found hydrothermal vents spewing superheated, mineral-rich water into the pitch-black abyss. More surprising still was the dense community of organisms—including giant tubeworms and unique crabs—thriving around these vents in the absence of sunlight. [1] __________________________________________________ Instead of relying on photosynthesis, these organisms utilized chemosynthesis, a process in which microbes convert toxic chemicals from the vents into energy, establishing a completely new understanding of life's adaptability.

Which choice most effectively introduces the paragraph's explanation of the primary energy source for this ecosystem?

Architects and engineers have long marveled at the durability of ancient Roman concrete, which has survived for millennia under harsh marine conditions. Unlike modern concrete, which often degrades within decades, Roman concrete grows stronger over time due to a chemical reaction between volcanic ash and seawater. [1] This reaction creates a rare mineral called aluminous tobermorite, which reinforces the structure and prevents cracks from spreading. Modern researchers are studying this ancient formula to develop more sustainable and long-lasting building materials for coastal cities.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence at Point [1]:

"Volcanic eruptions, such as the one at Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, often caused widespread destruction but left behind valuable ash deposits."

Should the writer make this addition?

Passage Excerpt:
Although many people think of vanilla as a basic or simple flavor, the process of cultivating vanilla beans is incredibly labor-intensive. Each orchid flower blooms for only a single day, during which it must be hand-pollinated by skilled workers using a thin wooden splinter. After pollination, the green pods must grow on the vine for nine months before they can be harvested.

The writer wants to add a sentence at this point that highlights the extreme precision and care required during the curing stage of vanilla production. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

Passage Excerpt:

In 1969, as the Apollo 11 spacecraft soared toward the moon, its onboard computer experienced an unexpected overload. Fortunately, the system did not crash, thanks to the pioneering work of software engineer Margaret Hamilton. Hamilton had designed the software to prioritize critical tasks, such as radar operations, over lower-priority functions. She spent years developing the code. This priority scheduling system prevented a potential disaster, allowing the lunar module to land safely.

Given that all the choices are true, which one best replaces the bolded text to emphasize the rigorous testing and simulated missions Hamilton conducted to ensure the software would work under pressure?

In 1886, Josephine Cochrane, a wealthy socialite frustrated by her servants chipping her fine china during hand-washing, patented the first commercially successful automatic dishwasher. Unlike previous inventors who used manual scrubbers, Cochrane designed a machine that utilized high water pressure to clean dishes. [1] She founded a company to manufacture her invention, which initially marketed the machine primarily to restaurants and hotels due to its large size and high cost. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that smaller, consumer-friendly models became standard in residential kitchens.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence at point [1]:
"Cochrane’s husband, William, was a successful local politician and merchant who assisted in financing her initial prototype."

Should the writer make this addition?