Question

Read the following passage:

In the latter part of the twentieth century, the architectural style known as Brutalism—characterized by massive, monolithic forms and the prominent use of exposed concrete (béton brut)—faced nearly universal condemnation. To populist critics and much of the general public, Brutalist civic buildings and housing estates were visually aggressive and psychologically alienating. They argued that the style’s imposing aesthetic reflected a bureaucratic indifference to human scale and individual comfort. For these detractors, Brutalism was less an architectural movement than a symptom of a technocratic state imposing its will upon the populace.

However, a new generation of architectural historians has recently sought to rehabilitate Brutalism's image. These revisionists argue that the early critics fundamentally misunderstood the movement's underlying philosophy. Far from being driven by bureaucratic indifference, the original Brutalist architects were motivated by a fiercely egalitarian ethos. By utilizing inexpensive, unadorned materials, they aimed to democratize architecture and strip away the bourgeois pretensions of earlier decorative styles. The revisionists contend that the subsequent decay and perceived bleakness of Brutalist structures were caused not by the architectural design itself, but by chronic municipal underfunding and the failure of post-war governments to maintain public infrastructure.

While the revisionist perspective provides a necessary corrective to the overly simplistic narrative of Brutalism as inherently oppressive, it arguably overcorrects by romanticizing the movement’s intentions. It is true that the architects espoused utopian ideals, yet one cannot entirely dismiss the lived experience of the inhabitants. By prioritizing theoretical honesty in materials over the practical psychological effects of massive concrete facades on daily life, the architects themselves bear some responsibility for the alienation their buildings ultimately fostered. The failure of Brutalism cannot be entirely externalized onto municipal budgets; it also stems from a dogmatic aesthetic vision that often failed to account for human psychology.

According to the passage, the "new generation of architectural historians" attributes the decay and perceived bleakness of Brutalist structures to which one of the following?