Soru

Passage:
During the late eighteenth century, European geological inquiry was polarized by competing hypotheses regarding the genesis of basalt formations. Abraham Gottlob Werner of the Freiberg Mining Academy formulated the Neptunist framework, contending that all lithological strata, including columnar basalt, originated as crystalline chemical precipitates from a universal primordial ocean that had gradually receded. Werner maintained that basalt layers were strictly sedimentary and aqueous in origin, explicitly rejecting the notion that subterranean heat played any constructive role in rock formation.

In contrast, the French naturalist Nicolas Desmarest challenged Neptunism through exhaustive topographical mapping of the Auvergne region in central France. By physically tracing prismatic columnar basalt formations along continuous gradients to the eroded craters of extinct volcanoes, Desmarest demonstrated that basalt was the solidified residue of ancient molten lava streams rather than an aqueous precipitate.

Extending this thermal paradigm, the Scottish polymath James Hutton developed the Plutonist theory, which posited that internal subterranean heat acted as the primary engine of geological consolidation and upheaval. Hutton identified structural unconformities and observed subterranean whinstone (basalt) veins cutting through older sedimentary strata, explicitly arguing that basaltic rock intruded into existing formations in a molten state under immense lithostatic pressure rather than settling on the Earth's surface.

Meanwhile, the German geologist Léopold von Buch, initially an ardent disciple of Werner, experienced an intellectual divergence after conducting field investigations in the Canary Islands and Auvergne. Concluding that Werner's aqueous precipitation model could not account for isolated volcanic cones and steeply tilted basalt sheets, von Buch formulated the 'craters of elevation' hypothesis, asserting that basaltic masses were forcefully pushed upward from below by deep-seated volcanic pressures, fracturing and lifting the overlying strata.

Based on the explicit details provided in the passage, match each geological researcher or theorist with the specific finding or theoretical claim attributed to them in the text.