Soru

Passage:

The application of traditional international law to the domain of cyberspace presents profound doctrinal challenges, particularly concerning the attribution of state responsibility. The Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, drafted by an international group of legal experts, represents the most comprehensive attempt to map existing legal frameworks onto cyber operations. A central dilemma addressed by the Manual is how to apply the law of state responsibility when cyberattacks are frequently executed by non-state actors—such as hacktivists or private syndicates—who may operate with varying degrees of state sponsorship or acquiescence.

Under customary international law, a state is responsible for the actions of non-state actors only if those actors are operating under its direction or control. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) established the stringent "effective control" test in the *Nicaragua* case. According to this standard, a state must direct the specific operations in which the violations occurred for the acts to be attributable to that state. In the context of cyberspace, this standard is notoriously difficult to satisfy. A state might provide funding, malware, or intelligence to a hacktivist group, but unless it directs the specific targets and methods of a cyber operation, the "effective control" threshold is not met, shielding the state from direct legal responsibility.

Recognizing this evidentiary hurdle, some legal scholars advocate for the adoption of the less rigorous "overall control" standard, originally articulated by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in the *Tadić* case. This standard requires only that a state has a role in organizing, coordinating, or planning the military actions of the group, in addition to financing or equipping it. While the "overall control" test would significantly broaden the scope of state attribution for cyber operations, the majority of the Tallinn Manual experts rejected its application to state responsibility, maintaining that the ICJ’s "effective control" test remains the existing law.

Consequently, scholars have increasingly focused on the distinct principle of "due diligence." Unlike attribution, which holds a state directly responsible for a cyber operation, due diligence imposes an obligation on a state to ensure that its territory—or cyber infrastructure within its jurisdiction—is not used to commit internationally wrongful acts against other states. The Tallinn Manual acknowledges that if a state is aware of malicious cyber operations originating from its territory and fails to take feasible measures to terminate them, it violates its due diligence obligations. This provides a legal remedy that bypasses the stringent attribution requirements of the "effective control" standard, albeit focusing on the state's omission rather than the cyberattack itself.

Based on the passage, which of the following statements regarding the standards of attribution and state obligation in cyberspace are accurate? (Select all that apply)