Period 1: 1491–1607

"Since the Indians are by nature inclined to idleness and vice, and have no understanding of the Christian faith or of civil life, it is necessary to place them under the care of Spanish settlers. Under this arrangement, the Spaniards shall have the right to demand tribute and labor from them, and in return, the settlers must instruct them in the Catholic faith, protect them, and teach them civilized customs. Without such governance, the Indians will neither work for the profit of the Crown nor save their souls."

— Rodrigo de Albornoz, royal accountant in Mexico, letter to Emperor Charles V, 1525

The arguments in the excerpt were most commonly used by Spanish colonizers to justify which of the following?

Duarte Pacheco Pereira, a Portuguese explorer and merchant, *Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis*, c. 1508:

'At the mouth of this river... the inhabitants trade in slaves, whom they buy in the interior in exchange for copper bracelets and brass basins... Our merchants buy these slaves from the local rulers and transport them to the castle of São Jorge da Mina, where they sell them to other African merchants in exchange for gold.'

Based on the excerpt, which of the following best describes a key characteristic of the relationship between West African societies and European traders during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries?

Read the excerpt below.

'We order and command that henceforward for no cause of war or any other... shall any Indian be made a slave, and we will that they be treated as our vassals of the Crown of Castile, as they are... Furthermore, We order and command that from now on... no person shall give Indians in encomienda; and upon the death of the persons who hold them, they shall be placed under our Royal Crown, to be ruled and governed by us...'
— The New Laws of the Indies, promulgated by King Charles I of Spain, 1542

The passage excerpted above most directly reflects which of the following developments in the Spanish Empire during the sixteenth century?

"We ordain and command that no Spaniard, Mestizo, Mulato, or black, whether free or slave, shall live in the towns of the Indians, because it has been found that some Spaniards who live among them, and Mestizos and others who frequent their villages, are people of restless life, of bad habits, thieves, gamblers, and vicious men, who, to support their vices, rob the Indians and mistreat them, causing them to abandon their homes and fields... And we command that those who are already living there be expelled, and not be permitted to return."

— King Philip II of Spain, Royal Ordinance on the Segregation of the Republics, 1563

Which of the following best explains the primary purpose behind the Spanish royal policy described in the excerpt?

"Forasmuch as you, Christopher Columbus, are going by our command, with some of our vessels and men, to discover and subdue some Islands and Continent in the ocean... it is our will and pleasure, that you, the said Christopher Columbus, after you have discovered and conquered the said Islands and Continent... shall be our Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor-General therein... and that you may receive the tenths of all precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other fruits and merchandise..."

— Capitulations of Santa Fe, agreement between Christopher Columbus and the Crown of Castile, 1492

The agreement outlined in the excerpt most directly reflects which of the following goals of Spanish colonization?

Read the excerpt below.

'Compare these natural qualities of judgment, talent, magnanimity, temperance, humanity, and religion with those of these pitiful men [the Indians], in whom you will scarcely find any vestiges of humanity; who not only lack culture but do not even use or know about writing... and they have no written laws, but only some institutions and customs... If you know about their customs and character, which are barbaric... what can we expect of men who were committed to all kinds of passions?'
— Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, *Democrates Alter*, 1547

The argument in the excerpt was most directly used by Spanish colonizers to justify which of the following?

"Their towns are commonly small... near the water side... The ground about them is cleared, and where it is not, they fell the trees, save only those which they leave for shade... They plant their corn, beans, and pumpkins together in the same field, which they call their garden... Thus, by their industry, they draw from the earth a plentiful sustenance without the need of keeping herds of cattle or clearing vast tracts of forest."

— Thomas Hariot, *A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia*, 1588

Which of the following historical developments of the pre-contact period is best illustrated by the agricultural practices described in the excerpt?

Read the excerpt below and answer the following question.

"For just and reasonable causes... we order that discoverers, pacifiers, and settlers shall not, under any pretext, make war on the Indians, nor do them any harm or injury, nor take any of their property, unless they are the aggressors... We also order that discoveries are not to be called conquests, since we wish them to be carried out peacefully and with charity, and not with the violence or harm that the word conquest implies, so that this title does not give occasion or permit force to be used against the Indians."
— King Philip II of Spain, *Ordinances for New Discoveries*, 1573

The shift in Spanish colonial policy described in the excerpt was most directly a response to which of the following developments?

"We ordain and command that no mestizo, mulatto, or person of mixed lineage shall hold any public office, nor serve as a notary, nor be permitted to carry weapons, nor live in the villages of the Indians, on account of the many disturbances and offenses they cause among the native populations. However, those individuals born of legitimate Catholic marriage and possessing good character may be granted special licenses to hold minor positions under the supervision of local Spanish officials, provided they demonstrate complete loyalty to the Crown. This social hierarchy must be preserved to maintain order and authority in the colony."

— Royal Decree of Emperor Charles V, 1549 (later compiled in the Laws of the Indies)

The restrictions described in the excerpt most directly reflect which of the following developments in the Spanish colonies?

Girolamo Benzoni, an Italian traveler, wrote the following observation in his *History of the New World* (1565):

'The Spaniards have sown wheat, but it does not grow well except in the cold countries... They have also planted many vines and made wine, and many olive trees, from which they obtain oil... Yet the native peoples continue to cultivate their own crops, especially maize, which they use to make their bread and drink.'

Based on the excerpt and historical context, which of the following was a primary consequence in Europe of the agricultural exchanges between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres?

The introduction of European livestock—such as cattle, sheep, and horses—to the Americas in the sixteenth century initiated a profound ecological and social transformation. In areas of dense indigenous settlement, grazing animals frequently invaded native cropland, destroying the maize and bean fields that sustained local populations. Yet, many Indigenous societies adapted dynamically to this ecological invasion. On the open grasslands, the adoption of the horse allowed previously sedentary agricultural groups to transition to mobile, equestrian societies, altering patterns of hunting, warfare, and regional trade across the continent.

Which of the following was a major consequence of the ecological and social changes described in the passage?

"This city and province is filling up with a great number of mestizos, who are the children of Spanish men and Indian women. Because they are born out of wedlock and raised without proper instruction, many of them wander idly through the countryside or settle in the towns of the Indians, where they commit many offenses and cause great disorder. If your Majesty does not command that they be gathered into communities, taught trades, and prohibited from wandering among the Indians, their growing numbers will pose a grave danger to the peace and security of this land."

— Luis de Velasco, Viceroy of New Spain, letter to the King of Spain, 1553

Which of the following social developments in the Spanish colonies is most directly illustrated by the concerns expressed in the excerpt?

The Pacific Northwest was home to societies like the Chinook, who established large, permanent villages and complex social hierarchies based on the harvesting of marine resources such as salmon. Conversely, in the Great Basin, the scarcity of water and food resources forced indigenous groups into highly mobile, nomadic lifestyles, while groups in the Southwest developed elaborate irrigation systems to sustain settled agricultural communities.

Based on the description of these societies, which of the following historical conclusions is best supported regarding pre-Columbian indigenous populations?

Read the passage below and answer the following question.

"The debate that unfolded in sixteenth-century Spain was not merely an academic exercise; it was a fundamental clash over the nature of humanity and the limits of imperial power. For the first time in history, an imperial nation halted its own conquests to deliberate on the morality of its expansion. At the heart of this conflict were two opposing views of the indigenous peoples: one that saw them as natural slaves who benefited from paternalistic subjugation, and another that viewed them as rational beings capable of peaceful conversion to Christianity. This struggle shaped the development of early international law and Spanish colonial administration, even if the resulting legislation was frequently ignored on the ground."

The ideological debates described in the excerpt most directly resulted in which of the following actions by the Spanish Crown?

Source: Pedro de Cieza de León, Spanish chronicler, *The Chronicle of Peru*, 1553

"As there are many temperate valleys in this land, they produce wheat, barley, and vines, which have been planted by the Spaniards. Likewise, there are many herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, which have multiplied exceedingly. The native people have also taken to cultivating these crops, and they find the meat of the European animals very good to eat."

Which of the following developments in the Americas in the sixteenth century was a direct consequence of the processes described in the excerpt?

Read the excerpt below and answer the question.

"The native populations of this island have been so reduced by the pestilence and their flight into the mountains that the Spanish settlers can no longer sustain their estates or pay the royal taxes. Where there once were thousands of native laborers, now barely a few dozen remain to work the sugar mills. If your Highness does not grant licenses to import robust laborers from the West African coast, these lands will be entirely abandoned, and the revenues to the Crown will cease."
—Alonso de Zuazo, Spanish colonial administrator in Hispaniola, letter to the Spanish Crown, 1518

The conditions described in the excerpt most directly contributed to which of the following sixteenth-century developments?

The intellectual debates in sixteenth-century Spain over the treatment and status of Indigenous peoples were not merely academic exercises; they had profound legal consequences in the Americas. While figures like Bartolomé de las Casas argued for the spiritual equality and rational capacity of Native Americans, and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda championed their subjugation based on theories of natural slavery, Native communities were not passive observers. Instead, elite Indigenous leaders quickly learned the nuances of Spanish law and theological arguments, employing Spanish courts and petitioning the crown directly to protect their communal lands, secure exemptions from the encomienda, and preserve elements of their traditional political structures.

Which of the following historical developments in the Spanish colonies during the sixteenth century best supports the author's argument in the passage?

“It is necessary to govern these populations of mixed lineage (*castas*), who daily increase in number. Many mestizos and mulattoes, lacking recognized estates or defined duties, live among the Indians, taking their food and inciting them to avoid their tribute and labor obligations. To preserve the order of the republic, we must ensure that those of mixed blood are registered, live under the supervision of Spanish masters, and are barred from wearing Spanish clothing or carrying weapons...”

—Adapted from a report by a Spanish colonial administrator in New Spain, 1589

Based on the excerpt, which of the following was a primary purpose of the Spanish policies described?

“Since the native Indians of these islands are weak and of small strength, and are rapidly decreasing in numbers because of the heavy labor in the mines, we should grant permission for the introduction of black slaves from Africa. They are much stronger and better suited for such arduous work, and their labor will allow the sugar mills and gold mines to continue operating while relieving the surviving Indians of their heavy burdens.”

— Spanish colonial officials in Santo Domingo, letter to the Spanish Crown, 1518

The ideas expressed in the excerpt best reflect which of the following historical developments in the Spanish colonies during the sixteenth century?

"The introduction of New World food crops, particularly maize and sweet potatoes, to Afro-Eurasia during the sixteenth century triggered a major demographic transformation. Unlike traditional European grains, these American crops yielded significantly more calories per acre and could grow in soils previously deemed marginal. The resulting agricultural surplus contributed to a population boom across Western Europe, which eased the long-term demographic pressures of urbanization and provided a surplus of laborers. In turn, this population pressure, combined with economic shifts such as the commercial revolution, generated a large pool of displaced people who became the primary source of labor and colonists for European empires in the Americas during the seventeenth century."

Based on the passage, which of the following was a major long-term consequence of the biological transfers described?