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Difficulty: Very hardAncient Indian Civilizations and Early Empires

Consider the following statements regarding the land classification and administrative machinery during the Gupta period:

1. In Gupta epigraphic records, *Kshetra* denoted land under active cultivation, while *Aprahata* referred to uncultivated virgin or forest land.
2. The tenure system known as *Nivi-dharma* referred to a perpetual land grant where the donee had the right to enjoy the revenue yields without the right to alienate the principal land.
3. The imperial official designated as *Sandhivigrahika* was primarily responsible for land measurement, survey, and agricultural tax collection.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 onlyAnswer
  2. B
    2 and 3 only
  3. C
    1 and 3 only
  4. D
    1, 2 and 3

Answer

Statements 1 and 2 are correct, while statement 3 is incorrect.
In the Gupta Empire, land was systematically classified in inscriptions: *Kshetra* referred to land under cultivation, while *Aprahata* referred to uncultivated virgin forest land. Land tenure under *Nivi-dharma* granted perpetual rights to enjoy income without alienation of the property. The officer *Sandhivigrahika* served as the minister of peace and war (foreign affairs) rather than a land revenue administrator, making statements 1 and 2 the only correct statements.

Step-by-Step Solution

1
Analyze Statement 1 regarding Gupta agrarian land classification terms.
Gupta inscriptions (e.g., Pahadpur and Damodarpur copper plates) classify land into distinct categories: *Kshetra* (cultivable land), *Khila* (wasteland), *Aprahata* (forest or virgin land), *Vasti* (habitable land), and *Gapata-sarah* (pasture land). Thus, Statement 1 is correct.
Accurate identification of ancient epigraphic agricultural terminology.
2
Analyze Statement 2 regarding land tenure systems in the Gupta era.
*Nivi-dharma* (or *Akshaya-nivi-dharma*) was a dominant system of land tenure where land was granted in perpetuity. The recipient (donee) was permitted to collect and enjoy the interest or produce from the land, but had no legal right to sell, mortgage, or alienate the property itself. Thus, Statement 2 is correct.
Understanding legal and revenue characteristics of land grants.
3
Analyze Statement 3 regarding the portfolio of the official Sandhivigrahika.
*Sandhivigrahika* (Minister for Peace and War / Foreign Affairs) was an executive portfolio created under the Gupta administration (first prominent holder being Harisena under Samudragupta, as recorded on the Allahabad Pillar). Land assessment and revenue administration were handled by officers such as *Dhruvadhikarana* (revenue collector) or *Pustapala* (record keeper). Thus, Statement 3 is incorrect.
Distinguishing diplomatic titles from revenue administration officers.

Key Concept

Gupta Administrative Machinery, Epigraphy, and Agrarian Land Tenure Systems
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Topics

Ancient Indian Civilizations and Early Empires

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