Period 1: 1491–1607

"The said Indians and all other people who may later be discovered by Christians, are by no means to be deprived of their liberty or the possession of their property, even though they be outside the faith of Jesus Christ; and that they may and should, freely and legitimately, enjoy their liberty and the possession of their property; nor should they be in any way enslaved; should the contrary happen, it shall be null and have no effect."

— Pope Paul III, *Sublimis Deus*, 1537

Which of the following historical developments in the Spanish colonies during the sixteenth century best explains why the declaration in the excerpt failed to protect Indigenous populations from widespread exploitation?

"Because of the excessive liberty the Indians have, they run away... and do not want to work, but wander about... We command you to compel the Indians to associate with the Spanish... and to work in their buildings, and to gather and mine gold and other metals, and to till the fields... and you must pay them the wages you think they deserve... and see to it that they are instructed in our Holy Catholic Faith..."
— Royal Decree to Governor Nicolás de Ovando of Hispaniola, 1503

Which of the following best describes the primary purpose of the Spanish policy outlined in the excerpt?

"Now if these people are rude, untaught, and wild... we must not wonder, for this is common to all nations at their beginning... We ourselves, in our ancestors, were much wilder and more difficult to tame... If they have some customs that seem strange, we must understand their reasons, for they have laws, marriages, cities, and governments of their own, and they worship their gods with great devotion. Thus they are not beasts, nor are they incapable of receiving the Christian faith, but rather are ready and willing."

— Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologetic History, c. 1550

Based on this excerpt, which of the following arguments did opponents of the Spanish encomienda system, such as Bartolomé de las Casas, use to challenge the ideological justifications of Spanish colonization?

To make the distinctions clearer: a Spaniard and an Indian woman produce a mestizo; a mestizo and a Spanish woman produce a castizo; a castizo and a Spanish woman produce a Spaniard; a Spaniard and a Black woman produce a mulatto; a mulatto and a Spanish woman produce a morisco... These names and classifications are not merely for curiosity; they determine the tribute one must pay to the Crown, the type of clothing one is permitted to wear, and whether one may hold public office or enter the priesthood in this New World.

— Adapted from Alonso de Carrió de la Vandera, El Lazarillo de Ciegos Caminantes (The Guide for Blind Travelers), 1773

Based on the excerpt, which of the following was the primary purpose of the Spanish casta system?

The arrival of European livestock in the Americas, particularly cattle, sheep, and pigs, transformed the physical environment of the New World. Lacking natural predators and grazing on open ranges, these animals reproduced at astronomical rates, often destroying native agricultural fields and altering indigenous land-use patterns. Conversely, the introduction of American crops like maize and potatoes to Afro-Eurasia stimulated significant population growth by providing nutrient-rich, caloric alternatives to traditional staples. This reciprocal transfer of biological agents reshaped human societies, diets, and ecological systems globally, laying the groundwork for the modern global economy.

—Alfred W. Crosby, *The Columbian Exchange*, 1972

Based on the passage, the ecological changes brought by the Columbian Exchange most directly led to which of the following developments?

Read the following excerpt and answer the question below:

"The Anasazi, who lived in the canyons of what is now the American Southwest, developed complex masonry cities and ran irrigation canals from rivers to their fields. They grew corn, beans, and squash—the traditional crops of the region. Because rainfall was scarce and unpredictable, their survival depended on their ability to manage water resources through dams, reservoirs, and terraced farming."
—Adapted from historical descriptions of pre-contact agricultural societies in North America

Based on the excerpt, which of the following was the primary way pre-contact societies in the Southwest adapted to their natural environment?

Although in the provinces of New Spain there are many diverse mixings of blood, the laws have sought to maintain a clear distinction to prevent the confusion that would arise from the equality of classes. Those born of pure Spanish parents, whether in Spain or the Americas, hold the primary offices of government and the Church. Below them, those of mixed blood—such as mestizos, born of Spaniards and Indians, and mulatos, born of Spaniards and Africans—are restricted from holding public office, bearing arms, or entering the priesthood, unless they obtain special dispensation. This hierarchy ensures that each person remains in the station to which their birth commits them, maintaining order in the commonwealth.

— Adapted from a report by a Spanish colonial administrator in Mexico, c. 1790

The regulations described in the excerpt most directly illustrate which of the following objectives of the Spanish colonial empire?

"Because there are many mestizos, mulattoes, and free negroes in these provinces of New Spain, who, although born of Indian mothers, are brought up without education or discipline, and because they are prone to idle lifestyles and commit many offenses against the Indians, we decree that they shall not reside in the Indian villages without express license. Furthermore, they are ordered to pay tribute to the Royal Treasury, just as the Indians do, but they shall remain prohibited from holding public offices or carrying weapons, for it is vital to the security of the realm that those of mixed blood do not stir up unrest among the native population."

— Royal Decree of Philip II, regulating the status of mixed-race populations in Spanish America, 1574

Which of the following developments in the Spanish American empire is best illustrated by the decree?

Read the passage below.

"Each day the traders are kidnapping our people—children of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family... This corruption and depravity are so widespread that our land is entirely depopulated... It is our wish that this Kingdom not be a place for the trade or transport of slaves."
— King Afonso I of Kongo, letter to the King of Portugal, 1526

Which of the following early transatlantic developments is best illustrated by the excerpt?

The introduction of American crops like maize, sweet potatoes, and potatoes to the Old World had profound demographic consequences. Unlike European grains, which were highly vulnerable to weather fluctuations, these New World crops could thrive in soils previously considered marginal and yielded far more calories per acre. In Europe, the cultivation of the potato led to a significant increase in food security, fueling a population boom that provided the labor force for emerging urban centers. Similarly, in Asia, maize and sweet potatoes allowed for the cultivation of upland areas, supporting rapid population growth.

The developments described in the passage most directly contributed to which of the following?

The relative scarcity of water and the dispersed nature of food resources in the Great Basin forced its inhabitants into a highly mobile existence. Archaeological sites in the region from the late fifteenth century, such as those in the Humboldt Sink, demonstrate that native peoples relied on seasonal migrations to exploit patchily distributed resources like pine nuts, roots, waterfowl, and small game. Rather than forming permanent settlements, these groups organized themselves into small, flexible family bands that could easily adapt to environmental fluctuations.

Based on the historical context of pre-Columbian North America, the environmental adaptations of the societies described in the excerpt most directly contrast with those of indigenous societies in which of the following regions?

Excerpt from the log of a Spanish expedition to the Caribbean, 1513:

'We resolved to plant a cross upon the shore to show that these lands belong to the Holy Church and the Crown of Castile. Thereafter, we traded with the local inhabitants for what little gold ornaments they possessed, hoping to discover the source of their wealth and secure their labor for our future settlements.'

Which of the following Spanish motivations for exploration and conquest in the Americas is most directly illustrated by this excerpt?

In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, Portuguese mariners on the West African coast did not establish inland colonies but instead built trading posts, or feitorias. These posts operated under agreements with local rulers, to whom the Portuguese paid rent and taxes. In return, West African leaders facilitated the trade of gold, ivory, and enslaved laborers, often integrating European goods into local networks of prestige and power.

Based on the passage, which of the following best describes the nature of early trade relations between West African societies and European merchants during this period?

“Three days after I captured this city, some of the Indians who lived here came to offer peace... They brought some turquoise and some thin blankets... I have not found any gold or silver, but the land is very fertile and suited for agriculture and livestock. The people are well-built and intelligent... They have great quantities of maize, beans, and squashes, which are their main food.”

— Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, letter to King Charles V of Spain, 1540

Which of the following developments in Spanish exploration and colonization is most directly supported by the excerpt?

"The native people of these islands have so declined in numbers due to their weakness and the diseases that have spread among them that they can no longer sustain the works of the fields or the extraction of gold from the mines. Many have fled to the mountains, and others have died of the smallpox. Thus, the settlers have turned to importing Negro slaves from the Portuguese ports of Africa, who are of stronger constitution and can endure the heavy labor of the sugar estates and mines under our command."

—Report from a Spanish colonial official in Santo Domingo, c. 1540s

Which of the following developments in the Spanish colonies during the sixteenth century was a direct result of the trends described in the excerpt?

"There came a plague of smallpox, which was so fierce and cruel that... it swept away more than half the people of the provinces... They died in heaps, like bedbugs. In many places it happened that everyone in a house died, and as they could not bury the great number of the dead... they pulled down the houses over them, so that their homes became their tombs."
— Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Spanish missionary, History of the Indians of New Spain, 1541

Which of the following developments in the Spanish American colonies did the conditions described in the excerpt most directly contribute to?

"The King... possesses many slaves, both from his own land and from neighboring countries, whom he obtains in various ways: by taking them in war, or by purchasing them from other lords... The Portuguese merchants bring him horses, which are of great value here, and other goods of Europe, receiving in return these slaves, whom they carry to the Atlantic islands or to Portugal. Yet the King allows no Portuguese to build any stone house or fort on his coast, for he fears they will seize his land, and so all trade is conducted from the ships or at the water's edge."

—Adapted from Alvise Cadamosto, Venetian navigator in the service of Prince Henry of Portugal, *Navigationes*, 1455

Based on the passage, which of the following best describes the early trade relations between West African rulers and Portuguese merchants?

"They do not sow corn, nor do they gather it. . . . They live in tents made of the tanned skins of the bison. They travel around on the plains following the herds. . . . They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings."
— Pedro de Castañeda, chronicler of the Coronado expedition, c. 1540

Which of the following environmental factors most directly contributed to the mobile lifestyle described in the excerpt?

"And the care they took was to send the men to the mines to dig for gold, which is intolerable labor, and to send the women into the fields of the big ranches to till and cultivate the land... And they used them not as beasts, but as the dirt under their feet, and this was the cause of the death of so many millions."

— Bartolomé de las Casas, Spanish Dominican friar, *A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies*, 1552

Which of the following was the primary purpose of the Spanish encomienda system described in the excerpt?

“All the peoples of the world are men, and the definition of all men, collectively and individually, is that they are rational beings. They all have understanding and volition and a free choice... Thus the entire human race is one; and all men equally have their beginning, their life, and their nature... They have a natural capacity to be taught and to receive the Christian faith.”

— Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologetic History of the Indies, c. 1550

The ideas expressed in the excerpt were most directly part of a Spanish colonial debate over which of the following issues?