Topic Development

In 1938, Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, a South African museum curator, received a call from a local fisherman who had caught a bizarre, heavy fish with limb-like lobed fins and an armored head. Recognizing its uniqueness, she sent descriptions to J.L.B. Smith, a prominent chemist and amateur ichthyologist, who identified it as a coelacanth—a primitive fish believed to have gone extinct 66 million years ago. This shocking discovery shook the scientific community, challenging long-held assumptions about the fossil record and the evolutionary history of vertebrates.

To find more specimens, Smith launched a decades-long search along the coast of the Indian Ocean, eventually discovering a second population near the Comoro Islands. Researchers soon realized that the coelacanth was not merely a lone survivor but part of a resilient, deep-water ecosystem that had remained largely undisturbed for eons. Consequently, J.L.B. Smith spent many years traveling along the coast of Africa looking for more of these creatures.

The writer wants to conclude the passage by emphasizing that the coelacanth's discovery continues to influence modern marine biology. Given that all the choices are true, which choice best accomplishes this goal?

The following passage is an essay about the ancient city of Petra.

[1]
Deep within the desert canyons of modern-day Jordan lies the ancient city of Petra, famous for its grand, red-sandstone facades carved directly into the cliff faces. Established as the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom as early as the fourth century BCE, Petra thrived as a major trading hub. However, its survival and prosperity in an arid environment depended not on its trade routes, but on the Nabataeans’ remarkable engineering: a sophisticated water management system.

[2]
The Nabataeans engineered a system that harnessed the region's rare but torrential flash floods. They constructed dams to redirect floodwaters away from the city center, preventing destruction, and routed the water into a network of cisterns and reservoirs carved into the rock. Aqueducts and ceramic pipes, pressurized to control flow rates, carried fresh spring water from miles away directly into the heart of the city. This engineering feat ensured a reliable year-round water supply for a population of over twenty thousand.

[3]
This mastery of water resource engineering transformed Petra from a barren outpost into a lush, oasis-like metropolis, complete with public gardens and fountains. By controlling the water supply, the Nabataeans not only secured their survival but also solidified their political and economic power in the region, demonstrating that human ingenuity could conquer one of nature's harshest landscapes.

Suppose the writer's goal had been to write an essay detailing how the Nabataeans engineered a water management system to sustain their desert capital. Is the statement that the essay successfully achieves this goal true or false?

Deep within a sandstone mountain on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen lies the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, often referred to as the "Doomsday Vault." Designed to withstand natural and man-made disasters, the facility serves as a safety net for the world's agricultural biodiversity. It stores millions of seed samples from across the globe, preserving them in sub-zero temperatures. In the event of a global catastrophe or localized crop failure, these seeds can be retrieved to restart agricultural production.

While some critics argue that the resources spent on the vault would be better utilized in supporting active farming communities, proponents emphasize its long-term security benefits. Indeed, the vault has already proved its value. In 2015, researchers from the Middle East withdrew seeds to replace a gene bank destroyed by conflict. __________

Which of the following sentences, if added at the placeholder, would provide the most effective conclusion to the passage by reinforcing its main theme?

The sentences below are from a draft of a biographical essay about inventor Mary Anderson. Arrange the sentences in the most logical order to show how Anderson's observations of a transportation hazard led directly to her development of a practical safety device.

The writer is considering deleting the underlined sentence from the following paragraph:

In 1869, Austria introduced the 'Correspondenz-Karte,' which is widely considered the world's first official postcard. Unlike letters, these cards did not require envelopes, making them a cheaper and faster way to send short messages. They quickly gained popularity across Europe, as millions of people embraced this convenient new form of communication. Many early postcards featured simple decorative borders or small illustrations of famous landmarks. The first postage stamps had been introduced in Great Britain in 1840, featuring the profile of Queen Victoria. By the late nineteenth century, the postcard craze had spread globally, transforming how people shared quick updates with friends and family.

Should the writer make this deletion?

Passage Excerpt:

In 1981, a committee selected twenty-one-year-old architecture student Maya Lin’s design for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. Rather than proposing a traditional, towering monument of white marble, Lin envisioned a simple, polished black granite wall cut into the earth. The names of the fallen soldiers would be carved chronologically onto the reflective surface, allowing visitors to see their own faces superimposed on the names of the dead. This design choice sparked considerable debate initially, but it eventually came to be recognized as a masterpiece of commemorative art.

Given that all the choices are true, which one best emphasizes the emotional and reflective connection between the visitors and the memorial, while maintaining the passage's somber, respectful tone?

Maya Hieroglyphs

[1] __________________________________________________ Historically, scholars like Eric Thompson argued that the glyphs were merely logographic symbols representing dates and astronomical concepts, with no phonetic elements. This view dominated Mayanist studies for decades, creating a consensus that Mayan writing could never be read phonetically. However, in the mid-twentieth century, Yuri Knorozov, a Soviet linguist, proposed that the glyphs represented syllables in addition to logograms. By comparing the signs in the surviving codices with spoken Mayan languages, Knorozov demonstrated that the script could indeed transcribe the sounds of spoken language, a breakthrough that revolutionized the field of Mesoamerican archaeology.

Knorozov's phonetic approach met with fierce resistance from the established academic community, but it eventually gained traction as other researchers successfully deciphered names, dynasties, and historical events recorded on monuments. The resulting translations transformed our understanding of Classic Maya society from a peaceful, stargazing civilization into one of complex political alliances, warfare, and rich literature.

The writer wants to begin the passage with a sentence that establishes its main focus: the shift in how scholars understood Mayan hieroglyphs. Which of the following sentences, if added at [1], would best accomplish this goal?

The following paragraph describes the invention of the QWERTY keyboard layout:

In 1868, printer and inventor Christopher Latham Sholes patented the first commercially successful typewriter. Sholes’s early models, however, had a frustrating flaw: if a typist struck adjacent keys in rapid succession, the metal typebars would easily collide and jam. To solve this problem, Sholes designed the QWERTY keyboard layout, placing frequently used letter pairs far apart on the keyboard. This design forced typists to work slightly slower, which successfully prevented the mechanical bars from sticking together. __________

Which of the following concluding sentences would best wrap up the paragraph by emphasizing the long-lasting impact of Sholes's invention?

During the late nineteenth century, the art of botanical illustration underwent a significant shift. While earlier illustrators focused almost exclusively on the aesthetic beauty of flowers to decorate garden catalogs, later illustrators collaborated closely with taxonomists to document minute anatomical details. [1] These illustrators created highly precise drawings of seed pods, root structures, and leaf veins, which were essential for scientific classification. This partnership between art and science elevated botanical illustration from a hobby to an indispensable academic discipline.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence at Point [1]:

"Many of these artists preferred watercolor over oil paint because it dried faster and allowed for finer lines."

Should the writer make this addition?

Deep within the arid regions of western India, ancient subterranean structures known as stepwells (or *baolis*) served as crucial architectural marvels. First constructed over a thousand years ago to harvest monsoon rains, these engineering feats allowed communities to access water year-round despite the region's hyper-seasonal climate.

[1] Elaborate stone corridors descended multiple stories underground, leading down to cool, shaded pavilions where locals gathered to escape the scorching heat of the afternoon sun. Travelers rested along trade routes, women socialized while retrieving water, and families performed religious rituals, effectively turning a vital water source into a vibrant center of civic life.

Which choice most effectively introduces the second paragraph and establishes its main focus?

The following is an excerpt from an essay about North African paleoclimate.

[1]
__________________________________________________ Archaeological excavations in the region have uncovered remains of hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and aquatic plants, alongside ancient fishing tools and pastoral rock art depicting long-horned cattle. These discoveries indicate that between $11,000$ and $5,000$ years ago, a massive lake system—including a "Mega-Chad" that stretched across $350,000$ square kilometers—supported diverse ecosystems. Furthermore, fossilized pollen reveals that Mediterranean vegetation, such as oaks and wild olives, once flourished where sand dunes now drift.

[2]
This dramatic ecological shift was primarily driven by gradual variations in the Earth's orbit, known as Milankovitch cycles. These orbital changes altered the distribution of solar energy, intensifying the West African monsoon and drawing moisture-laden winds deep into the continent's interior. When the orbit shifted back, the monsoon weakened, triggering a rapid feedback loop between declining vegetation and rising surface reflectivity that ultimately reclaimed the landscape for the desert.

Which choice provides the most effective introduction to the passage by establishing its central focus?

The Phonautograph's Silent Legacy

[1]
__________________________________________________ Scott's device utilized a horn to focus sound waves onto a flexible diaphragm, which was connected to a stylus that etched visual waveforms onto soot-coated paper or glass. Crucially, the phonautograph lacked any mechanism to play back the recorded sound; Scott intended for these visual tracings, or "phonautograms," to be deciphered and read by eye. It was not until 2008 that researchers successfully used digital imaging technology to play back Scott's 1860 recording of the French folk song "Au Clair de la Lune," revealing the oldest recorded human voice in history.

Which of the following choices, if inserted into the blank at the beginning of the passage, would provide the most effective introduction to the passage as a whole?

During the early nineteenth century, Mary Anning patrolled the crumbling cliffs of Lyme Regis, England, uncovering fossils that would reshape scientific understanding of prehistoric life. Despite her lack of formal education and the societal barriers she faced as a working-class woman, Anning’s sharp observations led to the discovery of the first complete ichthyosaur skeleton and a remarkable plesiosaur. Her findings provided crucial evidence for the controversial theory of extinction, challenging the prevailing belief that the natural world had remained unchanged since creation. [1]

The writer wants to end the paragraph with a sentence that emphasizes the lasting impact of Anning's discoveries on the field of science. Given that all the options are true, which choice best accomplishes this goal at the marker [1]?

[1] Granville Woods, a nineteenth-century inventor, made significant contributions to the safety and efficiency of the American railroad system. [2] His most notable creation was the induction telegraph, which allowed moving trains to communicate with dispatchers and other trains. [3] Prior to this invention, communication was extremely difficult and slow. [4] By sending messages through magnetic fields, the device prevented countless accidents and kept schedules running smoothly.

The writer wants to revise Sentence 3 to support the claim that the induction telegraph was a vital safety improvement for railroads. Given that all the choices are true, which choice most effectively accomplishes this goal?

[1] ____________________. [2] In 2009, chemist Mas Subramanian and his team at Oregon State University were researching materials with novel electronic properties. [3] They mixed black manganese oxide with other chemicals and heated them to nearly 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. [4] To their astonishment, one of the samples emerged from the furnace as a brilliant, intense blue. [5] Named YInMn Blue after its constituent elements—yttrium, indium, and manganese—this pigment was the first new inorganic blue discovered in over two hundred years.

YInMn Blue possesses remarkable structural qualities that make it highly useful. The pigment's crystal structure allows it to reflect infrared light, keeping surfaces cool when painted with it. Furthermore, it is exceptionally durable, safe to produce, and resistant to fading, unlike historical pigments like Prussian blue or ultramarine.

The writer is considering beginning the passage with one of the following sentences. Which choice most effectively introduces the main topic of the passage?

William Henry Perkin and the Dawn of Synthetic Chemistry

In 1856, eighteen-year-old chemist William Henry Perkin was attempting to synthesize quinine, a valuable treatment for malaria, in his home laboratory. Instead of obtaining the clear drug, his experiments resulted in a dark, sludge-like residue. Rather than discarding the failed mixture, Perkin investigated further and discovered that rinsing the sludge with alcohol produced a vibrant purple solution. This accidental substance was mauveine, the world’s first synthetic aniline dye. Prior to Perkin’s breakthrough, purple dye had to be painstakingly harvested from thousands of Mediterranean sea snails, making purple clothing a luxury reserved strictly for royalty and the ultra-wealthy. [1]

He patented the manufacturing process and established a factory to mass-produce the dye, effectively launching the modern chemical industry. Demand soared as European royalty, including Queen Victoria, began wearing mauve garments. By turning a laboratory mishap into a global enterprise, Perkin transformed both the fashion world and the field of industrial chemistry.

Given that all the choices are true, which choice, if inserted at [1], provides the most logical and effective transition from the first paragraph to the second paragraph?

The following is an excerpt from an essay about Sequoyah's creation of the Cherokee syllabary.

In the early nineteenth century, a Cherokee silversmith named Sequoyah became convinced that written language was the key to his people's independence. Despite widespread skepticism from his neighbors, who believed writing was a form of sorcery, Sequoyah began experimenting with symbols. He initially tried to create a unique pictogram for every word in the Cherokee language, but he soon realized that memorizing thousands of drawings was impractical.

[1] __________________________________________________ [2] By listening closely to spoken Cherokee, Sequoyah identified eighty-five distinct syllables that made up the entire language. [3] He then assigned a specific character to each syllable, adapting some letters from the English alphabet and inventing others. [4] Within months of introducing this new syllabary in 1821, thousands of Cherokee people learned to read and write, leading to the creation of the Cherokee Phoenix, the first Native American newspaper published in both Cherokee and English.

Which of the following choices, if inserted at underline [1], provides the most effective introduction to the second paragraph?

When chief engineer Washington Roebling became bedridden with decompression sickness during the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, his wife, Emily Warren Roebling, stepped in to facilitate communication between her husband and the construction site. She began by taking detailed notes, delivering messages, and representing him at official gatherings. Over the next decade, Emily studied higher mathematics, civil engineering, and cable construction, effectively managing the daily operations of one of the nineteenth century's greatest engineering feats.

Upon the bridge's grand opening in 1883, Emily was the first person to cross it by carriage, carrying a rooster as a symbol of victory. Today, a plaque on the bridge honors her, noting that back of every great work we can find the self-sacrificing devotion of a woman. _________

Which of the following concluding sentences best wraps up the passage while emphasizing Emily Roebling's key contribution to the bridge's completion?

A writer is drafting an essay about the preservation of early sound recordings.

[1] In the late nineteenth century, early audio recordings were captured on fragile wax cylinders and shellac discs. [2] Over time, these materials degrade, making playback with a physical stylus risky or impossible because the needle can further damage the grooves. [3] To solve this, researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory developed a system called IRENE, which uses high-resolution digital imaging to create a 3D model of the grooves. [4] This optical scanning method allows computers to digitally reconstruct and play back the audio without ever touching the fragile medium. [5] Thomas Edison, who patented the phonograph in 1878, initially conceived of the device as a tool for recording office dictation rather than music. [6] As a result, historically significant recordings, such as the voices of nineteenth-century poets and early folk songs, are now being preserved for future generations.

The writer is considering deleting Sentence 5 from the paragraph. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?

During the Space Race of the mid-twentieth century, NASA relied on a group of female mathematicians known as 'human computers' to calculate complex flight trajectories. Among them was Katherine Johnson, whose exceptional mathematical skills were critical to the success of early crewed space missions. In 1962, as John Glenn prepared for the Friendship 7 mission, he famously requested that Johnson personally verify the orbital calculations programmed into NASA's new electronic computers. The electronic computers were mainframe IBM 7090 models, which occupied an entire room and used vacuum tubes before being upgraded to transistors. Although these electronic machines were incredibly fast, Glenn was skeptical of their reliability and trusted Johnson’s calculations more. Johnson’s work on this mission not only proved the capability of human computers but also helped transition NASA into the digital age.

The writer is considering deleting the underlined sentence from the paragraph. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?