Topic Development

Passage excerpt:

When the Paris Métro opened in 1900, the transit company sought to make the new underground railway inviting rather than intimidating. They commissioned architect Hector Guimard, whose modular cast-iron entryways came to define the city's aesthetic. Guimard’s designs utilized organic forms—such as arches resembling orchid stalks and glass canopies shaped like butterfly wings—to ease the public's transition from the familiar streets into the dark, subterranean platforms. By blending these natural motifs with structural metal, he created spaces that felt open and organic.

The writer wants to replace the bolded sentence with one that highlights how the physical architecture of the entrances specifically countered the public's fear of descending into a dark, subterranean space. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

[1] In 1938, Ruth Wakefield, owner of the Toll House Inn in Massachusetts, made culinary history when she decided to chop up a bar of semi-sweet chocolate and add it to her cookie dough. [2] She had expected the chocolate chunks to melt and swirl into the dough, but they instead retained their shape, creating the first chocolate chip cookie. [3] Over the years, many bakers have experimented with other cookie recipes, such as oatmeal raisin and peanut butter. [4] The recipe became an instant sensation among her guests, prompting Nestlé to print the Toll House recipe on their chocolate wrappers in exchange for providing Wakefield with a lifetime supply of chocolate.

The writer is considering deleting Sentence [3] from the passage. Should Sentence [3] be kept or deleted?

Saving Sounds of the Past

[1]
For decades, archivists and historians struggled with a delicate problem: how to play the oldest recorded sounds in human history without destroying them. Early sound recordings from the late nineteenth century were captured on fragile materials like wax cylinders, tinfoil, and shellac discs. Every time a stylus was placed in the grooves of these media to play back the audio, the friction wore away a tiny bit of the soft material, slowly erasing the history it contained.

[2]
In the early 2000s, a breakthrough emerged from an unlikely place: particle physics. Physicist Carl Haber realized that the high-resolution optical cameras used to track subatomic particle collisions could be applied to audio preservation. By using these cameras to take thousands of micro-photographs of a record's surface, scientists could construct a detailed three-dimensional digital model of the groove.

[3]
Once the digital model is created, specialized software acts as a virtual stylus, calculating how a physical needle would move through the reconstructed grooves. This process, known as optical sound recovery, allows researchers to play back the audio without ever physically touching the delicate media. As a result, recordings that were previously considered unplayable due to damage or decay can now be heard clearly for the first time in over a century.

[4]
Through this technology, historians have recovered invaluable cultural artifacts. These include an 1885 recording of Alexander Graham Bell's voice and early traditional songs of Native American tribes. By bridging the gap between physics and history, optical recovery has ensured that these fragile auditory snapshots are preserved for future generations to study and appreciate.

Suppose the writer's goal had been to write an essay that details the historical evolution of audio playback devices from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. Would this essay fulfill that goal?

Sequoyah’s System

[1]
In the early nineteenth century, a Cherokee silversmith named Sequoyah became convinced that written language was the key to his people’s political and cultural survival. Watching European settlers communicate across great distances using what he termed "talking leaves"—written pages—Sequoyah resolved to create a writing system for the Cherokee language. Despite having no formal education and speaking no English, he began his work around $1809$.

[2]
Initially, Sequoyah attempted to create a unique pictographic symbol for every word in the Cherokee language. This approach quickly proved unmanageable, as he amassed thousands of drawings that were too complex for others to memorize. Realizing the limitation of this method, he shifted his strategy. Instead of representing whole words, he began listening to the individual sounds that made up Cherokee words, dividing the spoken language into distinct syllables.

[3]
By $1821$, Sequoyah had completed a syllabary consisting of $86$ characters, which represented all the vocal sounds of the Cherokee language. Some characters resembled English letters, Greek symbols, or Hebrew numerals, though he assigned them entirely different phonetic values. The system was remarkably intuitive; unlike English, which requires years to master, a Cherokee speaker could learn to read and write using Sequoyah’s syllabary in just a few weeks. Within a decade, the Cherokee Nation established a bilingual newspaper, the *Cherokee Phoenix*, and achieved a literacy rate higher than that of neighboring white settlers.

Suppose the writer's goal had been to write an essay that documents the challenges and eventual success of creating a phonetic writing system for a previously unwritten Native American language. Would this essay fulfill that goal?

The writer is considering adding the following sentence to the passage (placed after Sentence 3):

"Darwin, in particular, was deeply concerned that Kelvin's timeline did not allow enough time for natural selection to produce the Earth's diverse life forms."

Should the writer make this addition?

[1] In the mid-nineteenth century, the physicist Lord Kelvin attempted to calculate the age of the Earth by measuring its geothermal heat loss. [2] Assuming the Earth began as a molten sphere and had been cooling steadily, Kelvin estimated its age to be between 20 and 400 million years. [3] While this calculation was far longer than the biblical timeline accepted by many at the time, it was hotly contested by geologists and biologists, who argued that evolutionary and geological processes required billions of years. [4] Kelvin's calculations, though mathematically rigorous, were ultimately flawed because he was unaware of radioactivity, which releases heat within the Earth's interior and delays cooling. [5] The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel in 1896 eventually provided the key to accurately dating the planet at 4.5 billion years.

[1] Restoring centuries-old oil paintings requires removing layers of accumulated dirt and discolored varnish without damaging the delicate paint underneath. [2] Historically, conservators relied on chemical solvents, which were difficult to control and could permanently dissolve the original pigment. [3] Today, many restoration experts are turning to laser ablation, a technique that uses short pulses of light to vaporize surface grime. [4] This method is highly precise; by adjusting the laser's wavelength, conservators can target specific foreign substances while leaving the paint intact. [5] The chemical composition of historical oil paints varied significantly depending on the region and the decade in which the artist worked. [6] Consequently, this advanced technology allows masterpieces to be cleaned with unprecedented safety, preserving the artist's original vision.

The writer is considering deleting Sentence 5 from the passage. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?

Clear Vision: Mary Anderson's Windshield Wiper

In the winter of 1902, Mary Anderson, a real estate developer and rancher from Alabama, visited New York City. While riding a streetcar on a snowy day, she observed that the motorman had to drive with the front window panes open, or periodically stop the streetcar to wipe snow and sleet off the windshield by hand. This not only delayed the journey but also exposed both the driver and the passengers to the freezing cold. Anderson immediately began sketching a solution.

Upon returning to Alabama, Anderson designed a manually operated device consisting of a lever inside the vehicle that controlled a rubber blade on the outside of the windshield. The lever allowed the driver to wipe the window without opening it. She was granted a patent for her invention in 1903, which she called a "window cleaning device." However, when she attempted to sell the rights to her invention to several manufacturing firms, including a prominent Canadian company, they rejected it, believing that the device had no commercial value and would distract drivers.

Anderson’s patent expired in 1920, just as the automotive industry began to boom. Shortly thereafter, Cadillac became the first car manufacturer to adopt the windshield wiper as standard equipment, based closely on Anderson's design. Although she never received financial compensation for her invention, Mary Anderson is now recognized as the visionary who made driving in inclement weather safe and practical.

***

Suppose the writer's goal had been to write an essay that chronicles how Mary Anderson's invention of the windshield wiper eventually brought her great wealth and commercial success during her lifetime. Is it true or false that the essay successfully fulfills this goal?

Passage Excerpt:

For centuries, scientists have marveled at the durability of ancient Roman concrete, which has survived for two millennia in harsh marine environments. Recently, researchers discovered that the Romans used a hot-mixing method, leaving small, white mineral fragments known as 'lime clasts' throughout the material. Previously, these lime clasts were once dismissed as a sign of poor mixing.

Prompt:

Given that all the choices are true, which choice most effectively highlights the active, self-healing role that lime clasts play in maintaining the structural integrity of Roman concrete over time?

In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers, Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne, made history by launching the first passenger-carrying hot air balloon in Versailles, France. The balloon, constructed of paper and silk, carried a sheep, a duck, and a rooster to test the safety of flight in the upper atmosphere. Versailles, famous for its grand palace, had served as the seat of French political power since 1682. The successful eight-minute flight proved that living creatures could survive the ascent, paving the way for the first human balloonists later that year.

The writer is considering deleting the underlined sentence. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?

Passage Excerpt:

Before the invention of radar, the British military constructed acoustic mirrors along the Kent coast to detect the drone of approaching enemy aircraft. [Sentence] These monolithic structures functioned like giant ears, reflecting sound waves onto a central microphone. However, the rapidly increasing speed of modern aircraft in the late 1930s soon rendered this network obsolete.

Which choice most effectively emphasizes the immense scale and distinctive geometry of the acoustic mirrors, highlighting their visual impact on the coastline?

The following sentences are from a draft of an essay about ancient maritime navigation. To ensure that the paragraph logically builds its claim that navigators could locate islands using ocean swells, what is the most logical order for these sentences?

Passage excerpt:

Deep in the forests of Japan's Echizen province, master papermakers continue to practice the ancient art of crafting washi. During the coldest months of winter, artisans stand in freezing mountain streams to wash the raw mulberry fibers, which are then beaten on stone slabs, ________.

The writer wants to choose a phrase that most effectively contrasts the grueling physical labor of the papermaking process with the delicate, refined quality of the finished product. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

Chef Marcus Samuelsson is known for fusing diverse culinary traditions to create unique dishes. In his signature restaurant, he blends ingredients from his Swedish upbringing with flavors from East Africa. [1]

The writer wants to add a sentence at point [1] that provides a specific example of a dish that represents this fusion of Swedish and East African cultures. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

Given the following paragraph:

[1] __________________. In 1943, Cousteau and engineer Émile Gagnan co-invented the Aqua-Lung, an open-circuit scuba technology. This revolutionary device allowed divers to breathe underwater without being tethered to a surface air supply. Armed with this new freedom, Cousteau spent decades filming underwater documentaries, bringing the mysteries of the deep ocean into the living rooms of millions of viewers worldwide.

Which choice provides the most effective introduction to the paragraph?

Translating the Machine

[1]
In 1947, Grace Hopper, a mathematician and pioneer in computer programming, was working on the Harvard Mark II computer when she and her team discovered a literal bug—a moth trapped in a relay, impeding the machine’s operation. While this incident popularized the term "debugging," Hopper's most significant contribution was yet to come. She envisioned a future where programming was accessible, proposing that computers could be programmed using English-like statements rather than binary code.

[2]
At the time, the computing establishment was highly skeptical. Many believed that computers were purely mathematical instruments capable only of arithmetic, and that writing programs in natural language was an impossibility. Undeterred, Hopper joined the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation in 1949 and began developing the first compiler, a program that would translate human-readable source code into machine language. By 1952, her compiler, known as the A-0, was operational, paving the way for modern programming languages like COBOL.

[3]
Hopper’s work revolutionized how humans interacted with machines. Instead of writing tedious strings of octal or binary code, programmers could write instructions using mathematical symbols and English words. The compiler would then do the translation. This shift not only democratized programming by making it accessible to non-mathematicians but also dramatically increased efficiency and reduced errors, laying the groundwork for the software industry.

Suppose the writer's goal had been to write an essay that describes how Grace Hopper's invention of the compiler overcame early skepticism to fundamentally change computer programming. Is the statement that the passage successfully fulfills this goal true or false?

[1] In the winter of 1902, during a visit to New York City, Mary Anderson observed a trolley driver struggling to keep the windshield clear of freezing sleet. [2] The driver had to open the front window, lean out into the icy wind, or even stop the trolley entirely to wipe the glass by hand. [3] Recognizing a clear need, Anderson sketched a design for a hand-operated rubber squeegee blade that could be controlled via a lever inside the vehicle. [4] She was granted a patent for her window-cleaning device in 1903. [5] Early twentieth-century trolleys and automobiles operated at much slower speeds than modern vehicles do. [6] Unfortunately, automotive manufacturers of the era failed to see the commercial value in her design, mistakenly believing that the motion of the blades would distract drivers.

The writer is considering deleting Sentence 5 from the paragraph. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?

[1] In the mid-twentieth century, geologist Marie Tharp set out to map the ocean floor, utilizing sonar data to draft the first comprehensive three-dimensional representation of the seabed. [2] Barred from research vessels due to her gender, Tharp relied entirely on depth profiles collected by her colleague Bruce Heezen. [3] By painstakingly plotting these profiles by hand, she identified a deep, continuous V-shaped valley slicing through the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. [4] Initially, Heezen dismissed Tharp's drawings as "girl talk," fearing that the existence of a central rift valley would lend credibility to the then-marginalized theory of continental drift. [5] It was not until independent photographic evidence of the rift was obtained that Heezen and the scientific establishment accepted Tharp's map as accurate.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence to the paragraph (placed after Sentence 4):

"Continental drift, first proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, suggested that Earth's continents had once been joined as a single landmass before drifting apart."

Should the writer make this addition?

A writer is editing a draft of an essay about the botanist Ynes Mexia.

[1] In her mid-fifties, Ynes Mexia began her career as a botanical collector, embarking on rugged expeditions across the Americas that would redefine the field. [2] Unlike many of her contemporaries who remained in laboratories, Mexia traveled deep into remote wildernesses, including the dense rainforests of the Amazon, to locate rare specimens. [3] Her efforts yielded an astonishing number of discoveries that significantly expanded botanical databases. [4] She was known for her meticulous preparation of plant samples, which she dried and categorized under harsh conditions.

The writer wants to revise sentence [3] to provide the most specific and concrete evidence to support the claim that Mexia's work significantly expanded scientific knowledge of plants. Which of the following sentences best accomplishes this goal?

Beneath the streets of London lies a complex web of tunnels that represents one of the greatest engineering feats of the nineteenth century: the London Underground. In the 1840s, London was experiencing unprecedented growth, leading to extreme congestion on its narrow roads. Horse-drawn carriages, omnibuses, and pedestrians clogged the city center, making travel slow and chaotic. Charles Pearson, a city solicitor, proposed a radical solution—an underground railway to transport passengers between the city's main railway termini.

Construction on the Metropolitan Railway began in 1860 using the 'cut-and-cover' method. Workers dug a trench along existing roads, built brick arches over the tracks, and then repaved the street above. The line officially opened on January 10, 1863, utilizing steam locomotives that ran on coal, which often filled the tunnels with smoke. Despite the initial concerns about air quality and safety, the railway was an immediate success, carrying tens of thousands of passengers on its opening day.

This pioneering venture proved that subterranean transit was not only possible but also highly profitable. The success of the Metropolitan Railway paved the way for the expansion of underground transit systems in cities around the world, transforming urban planning and the daily commutes of millions.

Suppose the writer’s goal had been to write an essay that details the physical construction process and the initial public reception of the world's first underground passenger railway. The essay successfully accomplishes this goal.

While visiting New York City in the winter of 1903, Mary Anderson noticed that streetcar drivers had to open their windows in the freezing rain to clear sleet from their windshields. She sketched a design for a hand-operated swinging arm with a rubber blade that could be controlled from inside the cabin. She was granted a patent for her device later that year, though manufacturing companies initially showed little interest. Today, windshield wipers are standard equipment on almost all motorized vehicles.

The writer is considering adding the following sentence to the end of the paragraph:

'During her trip to New York, Anderson also visited several popular art museums and historical landmarks.'

Should the writer make this addition?