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Passage A
In recent decades, claims that epigenetic marks—chemical modifications to chromatin structure and DNA methylation that regulate gene expression without altering nucleotide sequences—can be transmitted across generations have generated intense debate. Proponents of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance assert that environmentally induced epigenetic alterations can persist across multiple generations, thereby providing a non-genetic substrate for evolutionary adaptation. However, methodological rigor warrants substantial skepticism regarding these claims in mammalian systems.

In mammals, the germline undergoes two comprehensive waves of epigenetic reprogramming: first during primordial germ cell development, and subsequently in the pre-implantation embryo. During these phases, the vast majority of parental methylation marks and chromatin states are actively erased and reset to ground state pluripotency. Consequently, putative demonstrations of transgenerational inheritance often conflate true intergenerational epigenetic stability with direct environmental exposure. If a gestating female is exposed to a toxin, the mother (F0), her fetus (F1), and the fetus's germ cells (F2) are all directly exposed to the environmental perturbation. True transgenerational inheritance can therefore only be established if an altered phenotype persists into the unexposed F3 generation, a standard that experimental studies rarely satisfy rigorously without confounding genetic variants or persistent behavioral transmission via maternal care.

Passage B
The classical Modern Synthesis posits that the nucleotide sequence of nuclear DNA is the exclusive carrier of heritable biological information in metazoans. However, emerging molecular evidence demonstrates that non-DNA regulatory components can bypass germline reprogramming and exert enduring regulatory influences across generations. While widespread DNA methylation erasure does occur during mammalian embryogenesis, specific genomic regions—notably certain retrotransposon sequences, imprinted loci, and heterochromatic domains—consistently evade complete epigenetic reset.

Moreover, the scope of epigenetic inheritance is not restricted to DNA methylation alone. Sperm and oocytes deliver complex repertoires of small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs), such as microRNAs and transfer-RNA-derived fragments, as well as structurally preserved histone modifications, directly into the zygote. These non-genetic molecules orchestrate post-fertilization transcriptional cascades that can faithfully recapitulate ancestral physiological and behavioral phenotypes in subsequent generations. Far from being an experimental artifact or a rare exception confined to plants and nematodes, multi-generational epigenetic transmission represents a functional evolutionary mechanism that allows organisms to dynamically transmit phenotypic plasticity across rapid temporal horizons where standard DNA mutation and natural selection operate too slowly.

Based on the passages, which of the following statements express claims with which BOTH the author of Passage A and the author of Passage B would agree? (Select TWO correct answers)

In paleoclimatology, annual growth ring width in subarctic conifers has long served as a primary proxy for reconstructing historical summer temperatures. However, standard ring-width chronologies frequently produce ambiguous records because prolonged hydrological droughts and sudden volcanic thermal drops can induce identical degrees of radial growth compression. To resolve this interpretive impasse, researchers have turned to micro-anatomical anomalies known as 'light rings'—growth increments characterized by an abrupt arrest of cellular development before the end of the growing season. For instance, in high-latitude larch specimens associated with the severe 536 CE cooling event, the terminal tracheids exhibit incomplete secondary wall lignification rather than merely reduced cell count.

Which of the following most accurately describes the primary function of the reference to the incomplete secondary wall lignification in the passage?

Review the dialogue below regarding conservation science. Then, match each proposition on the left to the correct description of the speakers' stances on the right, based strictly on the information provided in the text.

Dr. Lin: Reviving extinct species like the thylacine is an indefensible allocation of scientific resources. Such initiatives provide no tangible benefit to currently living ecosystems, and they siphon capital away from habitat protection, which remains a fundamentally important pillar of biodiversity maintenance.

Dr. Thorne: I concede that habitat protection is a fundamentally important pillar, but your assessment ignores the technological externalities. The advanced genomic tools refined during de-extinction efforts are actively being repurposed to restore genetic diversity in endangered extant populations. Consequently, underwriting de-extinction research qualifies as a sound conservation practice.

Passage A
In the history of architectural conservation, the classical paradigm has long insisted that a structure’s historical authenticity is fundamentally inseparable from the preservation of its physical fabric. Codified influentially in the 1964 Venice Charter, this preservationist doctrine maintains that genuine authenticity resides exclusively in the survival and continuity of original material components. Under this framework, any substantial replacement of weathered stone, decayed mortar, or aged timber with modern replicas inevitably compromises the tangible evidentiary link between the past and the present. Restoration must therefore be rigorously distinguished from reconstruction: while the former seeks to arrest decay and stabilize surviving elements, the latter risks generating historical falsification by fabricating contemporary approximations of lost artifacts. When modern interventions or structural reinforcements become strictly unavoidable to prevent collapse, standard conservation ethics dictate that they must remain identifiable and visually distinct from the original material. The philosophical premise underpinning this doctrine is that an architectural monument operates as an irreplaceable physical document whose integrity diminishes whenever original matter is discarded. Consequently, the foremost obligation of the conservator is to safeguard the material substance itself, treating the aged artifact as the ultimate repository of historical truth.

Passage B
The traditional focus on tangible material fabric reflects a distinctly Western ontology that frequently fails to accommodate the living heritage traditions of diverse global cultures. In many societies, particularly across East Asia, architectural authenticity is understood not as the static preservation of decaying substances, but as the continuous, dynamic enactment of traditional craft knowledge, ritual practices, and communal memory. A quintessential illustration is the cyclical dismantling and reconstruction of sacred timber shrines, where structures are completely rebuilt at regular intervals using time-honored joinery methods and local materials. In such contexts, authenticity does not reside in the cellular longevity of a specific wooden beam, but in the unbroken continuity of the artisanal skills, cosmological meanings, and communal relationships that enable the building’s perpetuation. The 1994 Nara Document on Authenticity formally codified this broader perspective, establishing that heritage must be evaluated within the specific cultural frameworks that produced it rather than through rigid, universalized material criteria. By prioritizing living human practices over immutable physical artifacts, dynamic conservation demonstrates that the renewal of form can be an act of profound preservation rather than an instance of historical falsification.

Which of the following best describes the relationship between the view of authenticity expressed in Passage A and the view of authenticity expressed in Passage B?

In the late nineteenth century, the Neogrammarian school of historical linguistics revolutionized the discipline by positing the absolute regularity of sound change, asserting that phonetic laws admitted of no true exceptions within a given phonetic environment. Prior to this, apparent anomalies in Jacob Grimm's eponymous formulation—which mapped regular consonant shifts from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic—were frequently dismissed by philologists as the sporadic, capricious drift of vernacular speech. The most vexing of these anomalies was the voiced fricative exception: in certain cognate pairs, voiceless Proto-Indo-European stop consonants mysteriously manifested as voiced Proto-Germanic stops rather than the predicted voiceless fricatives. Rather than abandoning the premise of mechanical regularity, Karl Verner hypothesized that an unrecorded conditioning factor was operating. By comparing Germanic forms with Vedic Sanskrit, which retained archaic Proto-Indo-European pitch-accent placement, Verner demonstrated that the shift to voiced consonants occurred exclusively when the ancestral stress did not immediately precede the consonant in question. Verner's identification of this suprasegmental conditioning factor was pivotal: it rescued the foundational Neogrammarian axiom of exceptionless sound laws by revealing that what previous scholars had categorized as random phonetic decay was in fact governed by an overlooked structural variable.

In the passage, the author refers to "Vedic Sanskrit" primarily in order to do which of the following?

Read the following passage:

In formulating the foundational methodology of the Annales school, historian Marc Bloch sought to replace traditional historiography's focus on episodic political chronicles with the study of enduring structural continuities. To demonstrate that rural social organization evolved largely independent of state edicts, Bloch examined thirteenth-century cadastral surveys showing long, narrow open-field strip patterns across northern France. While conventional historians had long maintained that the partition of these communal plots was established by feudal land tenure statutes, Bloch noted that the elongated geometry of the strips was directly determined by the turning radius of heavy wheeled moldboard plows. By demonstrating that agricultural topography was dictated by collective agrarian technology rather than aristocratic jurisprudence, Bloch illustrated that fundamental social structures often develop through material imperatives unrecorded in traditional political archives.

The author mentions the 'turning radius of heavy wheeled moldboard plows' primarily in order to do which of the following?

Financial Analyst: A corporation can successfully weather a severe economic recession only if it maintains a substantial cash reserve prior to the downturn. Vancorp Industries has aggressively retained earnings over the past five years, resulting in a massive and unprecedented cash reserve. Therefore, we can be confident that Vancorp Industries will successfully weather the impending severe economic recession.

Which of the following best describes the logical flaw committed in the financial analyst's argument?

Passage A
The transition from classical mechanics to quantum theory in the early twentieth century vividly illustrates the primacy of empirical data in driving scientific progress. Classical physics had encountered a series of stubborn anomalies—such as the blackbody radiation problem—that fundamentally resisted explanation under Newtonian paradigms. The persistence of these anomalies generated a profound theoretical crisis. Physicists were compelled to abandon classical determinism because the accumulated data unequivocally demanded a radically new explanatory framework. Thus, major scientific shifts are fundamentally reactive: they are necessitated by the exhaustion of a prevailing theory’s explanatory power in the face of contradictory evidence, rather than by external philosophical or social pressures.

Passage B
Historians of science often incorrectly attribute the early twentieth-century shift toward quantum frameworks primarily to the pressure of inexplicable empirical phenomena. In reality, this transition was driven largely by profound institutional transformations within European physics. The emergence of a newly professionalized class of theoretical physicists, notably in Germany, created an academic culture that rewarded highly abstract, mathematical innovation. Supported by unprecedented industrial funding, research institutes incentivized the construction of probabilistically driven models. Younger physicists enthusiastically adopted these non-classical frameworks not inevitably because they offered superior empirical solutions, but primarily because doing so distinguished them from the entrenched classical establishment, thereby securing their own institutional authority and prestige.

Based on the information provided in the passages, about which one of the following would the two authors be most likely to DISAGREE?

Read the following excerpt:

In his critique of Robert Boyle’s pneumatic experiments, Thomas Hobbes argued that the vacuum produced within Boyle’s air-pump was an artifact of an artificial, enclosed contrivance rather than a disclosure of nature’s fundamental state. To illustrate how experimental boundaries compromised philosophical consensus, Hobbes pointed to the leather collar sealing the pump’s brass cylinder, contending that its inevitable micro-leaks introduced uncontrolled variables that Boyle’s theoretical model conveniently ignored. In Hobbes’s view, genuine natural knowledge could only be derived from causal deduction from first principles, not from fallible apparatuses whose integrity was continually suspect.

Statement: In the context of the excerpt, the author's reference to the 'leather collar sealing the pump’s brass cylinder' functions primarily to illustrate a specific mechanical imperfection that Hobbes leveraged to question the validity of Boyle's empirical findings.

Consider the following premises regarding staff at the Central Research Institute:

All research fellows at the institute possess a doctoral degree.
Most research fellows at the institute are currently directing a grant-funded project.
Most research fellows at the institute have served on the ethics board.

Based on these premises, the following deduction must be true: At least some individuals who are directing a grant-funded project and have served on the ethics board possess a doctoral degree.

Read the following dialogue.

Agronomist: The widespread adoption of indoor vertical farming is essential if we are to achieve global food security in the coming decades. By isolating crops from unpredictable weather patterns and drastically reducing water consumption, vertical farms can guarantee consistent harvests year-round, effectively insulating our food supply from the devastating agricultural impacts of climate change.

Economist: There is no denying that vertical farming is highly efficient in its use of land and water. However, its immense electricity requirements for artificial lighting and climate control make it financially unsustainable on a global scale. We cannot build a secure global food supply on a system that is so uniquely vulnerable to energy market shocks.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between the agronomist and the economist?

Director Thorne: The city's initiative to replace all aging streetlights with high-intensity LED fixtures has been a resounding success. The new LEDs have cut our municipal energy consumption for street lighting by 40 percent. Furthermore, their superior brightness has dramatically improved pedestrian safety in our commercial districts.

Traffic Commissioner Vane: I concede that the energy savings are substantial. However, the harsh glare produced by these specific high-intensity fixtures severely impairs the night vision of approaching drivers. Because this makes it significantly harder for drivers to spot people stepping into crosswalks, the new fixtures have ultimately made pedestrians less safe in those districts.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Director Thorne and Traffic Commissioner Vane?

Consider the following passage:

Historians of science frequently dismiss Tycho Brahe’s 1588 geo-heliocentric cosmological model as an ad hoc theological compromise designed to preserve Aristotelian geocentrism against the mathematical elegance of Copernican heliocentrism. However, this appraisal overlooks the compelling empirical obstacle that the Copernican system encountered prior to the invention of the telescope. If the Earth orbited the Sun, the apparent positions of fixed stars should shift relative to one another throughout the year—a phenomenon known as annual stellar parallax. Because no such parallax was detectable with sixteenth-century instruments, Copernicus had asserted that the stars lay at an almost unfathomable distance from Saturn's orbit. Tycho recognized the profound physical corollary of this assertion: given that naked-eye observers routinely measured the apparent angular diameters of third-magnitude stars at approximately two arcminutes, placing those stars at the minimum distance required to eliminate observable parallax would necessitate that individual stars were physical behemoths vastly larger than the Sun itself. To Tycho, an astronomer committed to physical plausibility, positing millions of disproportionately colossal stars simply to salvage terrestrial motion violated the principle of parsimony. Thus, Tycho’s citation of the two-arcminute stellar disk was not an obstinate retreat into dogma, but a mathematically rigorous application of contemporary observational data against an unverified hypothesis.

Statement: In the context of the passage, the author's reference to the 'apparent angular diameters of third-magnitude stars at approximately two arcminutes' functions primarily to identify an observational measurement that, within the geometric framework of heliocentrism, produced a physical consequence that Tycho considered unacceptable.

Read the passage carefully, which discusses the historiography of early modern science. Then, match each structural segment of the passage (left) to its corresponding abstract rhetorical function (right).

Historically, the prevailing framework for interpreting the evolution of early modern science was the discontinuity thesis, a paradigm that posited a sharp demarcation between the esoteric, seemingly irrational pursuits of medieval alchemy and the rigorous empiricism that ostensibly characterized the Scientific Revolution. Proponents of this view, largely operating within a nineteenth-century positivist framework, characterized alchemy as a monolithic set of mystical superstitions and obscurantist dogmas. In their estimation, these outdated practices had to be systematically dismantled and philosophically discarded before the foundational principles of rational chemistry could genuinely emerge. According to this pervasive orthodoxy, the triumph of mechanical philosophy depended upon an outright and permanent rejection of alchemical epistemology, rendering the two intellectual domains conceptually irreconcilable.

In the late twentieth century, this rigid bifurcation was robustly challenged by the ascendancy of the continuity thesis. A cohort of revisionist historians meticulously demonstrated that traditional alchemical laboratories were, in fact, sites of rigorous empirical observation, quantitative measurement, and sophisticated material manipulation. Rather than being swept away by the advent of the scientific revolution, alchemical practices were compellingly shown to have furnished the nascent experimental method with crucial operational techniques and indispensable chemical knowledge. This revisionist scholarship effectively reframed alchemy not as the unyielding antithesis of modern science, but as its indispensable methodological progenitor, thereby establishing a historical narrative of evolutionary inheritance rather than abrupt revolutionary rupture.

More recently, however, a pluralistic model has emerged in the historiography, identifying a fundamental theoretical flaw embedded within even the continuity thesis. Contemporary scholars argue that by evaluating alchemy primarily on its capacity to anticipate or contribute to modern experimentalism, the continuity thesis inherently relies upon a profound teleological bias. This retrospective framing inevitably reduces alchemy to a mere stepping stone in the march toward modernity, ignoring its intrinsic theoretical objectives and internal coherence. The pluralistic model instead advocates for evaluating alchemy on its own terms—as a parallel, highly sophisticated epistemic framework that possessed distinct metaphysical goals. In this view, alchemy interacted dynamically with mechanical philosophy, exchanging conceptual resources without necessarily being subsumed or superseded by it.

This shift in historiographical perspective carries profound implications for the textual analysis of seminal figures of the period, perhaps most notably Isaac Newton. Under the hegemony of the discontinuity thesis, Newton’s extensive alchemical writings were routinely dismissed as eccentric, inexplicable aberrations from his otherwise rational output. Under the continuity thesis, they were somewhat salvaged as primitive, halting exercises in chemical empiricism. The pluralistic model, by contrast, provides a robust analytical framework for fully integrating Newton’s alchemical texts with his mathematical physics. It illuminates how his lifelong quest to understand the active, occult forces of nature was not a contradiction of his rational mechanics, but a complementary facet of a unified, conceptually expansive intellectual worldview.

Passage A
The public trust doctrine, rooted in Roman civil law and English common law, historically established that certain natural resources—primarily navigable waters and their shorelines—are held in trust by the state for public use and cannot be irrevocably alienated to private ownership. While historically confined to surface navigation and commerce, this sovereign stewardship obligation must logically evolve in response to contemporary hydrological realities. Modern hydrogeology demonstrates that surface waterways and subterranean aquifers do not exist as isolated domains; rather, percolating groundwater and surface streams constitute a singular, integrated hydrological continuum. Unrestricted extraction of groundwater inevitably diminishes surface flows, jeopardizing public river ecosystems and community water security. Because the state's fiduciary duty is defined not by arbitrary physical boundaries but by the preservation of vital shared ecological resources, courts must extend the public trust doctrine to encompass non-navigable groundwater extraction whenever such pumping impairs trust-protected surface water systems. Common law water rights have never conferred absolute dominion; they remain fundamentally usufructuary privileges subordinate to enduring public needs.

Passage B
Advocates of expanding the public trust doctrine to groundwater overlook the profound destabilization such judicial intervention inflicts upon established property systems. For over a century, jurisdictions have managed groundwater through comprehensive statutory frameworks—such as prior appropriation and correlative rights regimes—that provide predictability, incentivize capital investment in infrastructure, and balance competing economic demands. While the physical interconnectedness of surface and subterranean water is undeniable, transposing an ancient common law trust doctrine onto percolating aquifers bypasses the specialized expertise of legislative bodies and regulatory water boards. Subjecting settled groundwater rights to retroactive, open-ended judicial re-evaluation under the vague rubric of 'public trust' strips appropriators of vested reliance interests and creates chronic legal uncertainty. Rather than enhancing resource management, extending the doctrine invites unguided litigation and usurps the constitutional role of legislatures, which are uniquely equipped to balance complex socio-economic priorities through democratic, science-based statutory reforms.

Based on the passages above, match each analytical component or point of comparison (Left Items) with its corresponding substantive position or textual attribution (Right Items).

In classical Anglo-American contract theory, as codified by Samuel Williston in the early twentieth century, consideration was conceived as an unyielding formal requirement: a promise was legally enforceable only if exchanged for a bargained-for detriment. However, legal realists like Arthur Corbin argued that strict adherence to this formalist doctrine produced inequitable results in commercial transactions where parties routinely relied on gratuitous representations. To accommodate these equities without formally overturning the doctrine of consideration, twentieth-century courts increasingly invoked the principle of promissory estoppel. Critics of this development, such as Grant Gilmore, famously proclaimed the 'death of contract,' asserting that promissory estoppel effectively collapsed contract law into the law of torts by basing liability on injurious reliance rather than mutual consent. Yet this appraisal overlooks how commercial courts actually operationalize the doctrine. Rather than displacing bargain consideration entirely, promissory estoppel functions primarily as a gap-filling mechanism in asymmetrical preliminary negotiations—such as when a general contractor relies on a subcontractor's unrevoked bid in submitting a prime tender—thereby stabilizing transaction costs without dissolving the distinct boundary between contractual obligation and general tort liability.

Which of the following most accurately describes the primary function of the author's reference to the scenario involving a general contractor and a subcontractor?

Ecologist: A widespread proliferation of the rare Xerophyllum lily never occurs in these mountainous regions unless there has been a recent, intense wildfire to clear competing vegetation and crack the plant's tough seed coats. Satellite imagery confirms that an exceptionally intense wildfire swept through the western slopes of Mount Cascade earlier this summer. Therefore, we can be certain that a widespread proliferation of the Xerophyllum lily will occur on the western slopes in the coming growing season.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the ecologist's reasoning?

Read the following excerpt discussing nineteenth-century legal doctrine:

In analyzing the constitutional legitimacy of state-mandated price caps on grain storage facilities, nineteenth-century American jurists frequently invoked seventeenth-century English jurist Sir Matthew Hale’s treatise *De Portibus Maris*. Hale had posited that when private property becomes 'affected with a public interest'—such as a solitary wharf enjoying a natural geographic monopoly along a navigable waterway—it ceases to be *juris privati* alone and becomes subject to affirmative public regulation. Legal formalists sought to restrict Hale’s doctrine strictly to enterprises possessing de jure state franchises, arguing that private warehouses operating without explicit sovereign charters fell outside state police power. However, progressive jurists countered that Hale’s primary concern was de facto market dominance rather than formal governmental privilege; by drawing an analogy between a modern railroad junction's grain elevator and Hale’s monopolistic river wharf, these judges demonstrated that extreme economic bottlenecks create identical vulnerabilities for public commerce, thereby justifying statutory rate oversight even in the absence of explicit municipal monopolies.

Match each cited phrase from the passage with the statement that most accurately characterizes its primary rhetorical function in the argument.

Passage A
Historically, Anglo-American copyright jurisprudence occasionally recognized the "sweat of the brow" doctrine, which extended property protection to factual compilations based primarily on the compiler's labor, diligence, and financial investment rather than creative expression. Proponents maintained that absent legal exclusivity, competitors could effortlessly duplicate exhaustively researched directories, indexes, or statistical tables, thereby destroying the commercial incentive to produce socially valuable information. However, this doctrine rested on a fundamental conceptual conflation between protectable creative authorship and unprotectable factual discoveries. Modern copyright has consistently maintained that facts cannot be owned, irrespective of the exertion required to unearth them. When the United States Supreme Court formally repudiated the doctrine in Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service Co. (1991), it correctly reaffirmed the constitutional core of copyright: to encourage creative expression while ensuring that raw factual information remains unencumbered in the public domain. Consequently, compilers must demonstrate at least a minimal degree of creative selection or coordination to claim copyright exclusivity.

Passage B
The judicial repudiation of the "sweat of the brow" standard created an immediate theoretical challenge regarding the incentives for producing data-intensive compilations. Following the elimination of copyright protection for purely industrious, non-creative data gathering, legal scholars warned that the public would suffer from an underproduction of critical commercial databases. Because raw factual collections lack the requisite creative arrangement, they appeared vulnerable to wholesale unauthorized duplication. Yet subsequent market developments have largely confounded these pessimistic predictions. Commercial compilers have successfully insulated their investments not through copyright, but through dynamic technological access controls, restrictive licensing contracts, and continuous, real-time data feeds that render static pirated copies obsolete. Moreover, empirical analyses of jurisdictions that instituted sui generis database rights—statutory regimes specifically designed to reward the financial investment in collecting data—show no significant increase in database growth relative to jurisdictions adhering strictly to the creativity standard. This evidence suggests that robust proprietary rights are not strictly indispensable for motivating diligent informational labor.

Based on the passages, which of the following statements express positions that are supported by BOTH Passage A and Passage B? Select all that apply.

Read the following passage:

In analyzing the evolutionary history of angiosperms (flowering plants), paleobotanists long confronted what Charles Darwin famously termed the 'abominable mystery'—the geologically sudden appearance and rapid diversification of crown-group angiosperms in the Early Cretaceous fossil record. For much of the twentieth century, the prevailing 'magnoliid hypothesis' posited that the earliest angiosperms were woody shrubs possessing large, multi-parted flowers analogous to modern magnolias, adapted primarily for generalist insect pollination. However, recent cladistic analyses integrating phylogenomic datasets with micro-fossil pollen ultrastructure have challenged this traditional paradigm. The discovery of *Amborella trichopoda*, a relictual, small-flowered shrub endemic to New Caledonia lacking vessels in its xylem, provided critical empirical support for placing small, apetalous forms at the very base of the angiosperm tree. To reconcile this basal placement with the sudden ecological dominance of flowering plants millions of years later, some researchers suggest that genome duplication events, rather than immediate morphological innovations, catalyzed physiological adaptability. Nevertheless, critics caution that relying exclusively on molecular clock estimations can artificially compress evolutionary divergence times, arguing that without unambiguous pre-Cretaceous macrofossils, assertions of a cryptic Jurassic radiation remain speculative.

Match each textual detail from the passage with the primary rhetorical function it serves in the author's argument.