Unit 9: Globalization

Source: Vandana Shiva, Indian environmental activist, *The Violence of the Green Revolution*, 1991.

"The Green Revolution has been a chemical-intensive, water-intensive agricultural strategy that replaced biodiverse, self-regenerating farming systems with monocultures. While it initially increased grain yields, it also led to severe environmental degradation, including soil erosion, pesticide contamination, and the depletion of groundwater. Furthermore, by forcing farmers to rely on expensive corporate seeds and fertilizers, it created deep financial debts that disrupted traditional rural communities."

Which of the following best describes the historical debate represented in the passage?

"We are the product of 500 years of struggle: first against slavery, then during the War of Independence against Spain led by insurgents, then to avoid being absorbed by North American expansion... But today, we say ENOUGH IS ENOUGH! We are the dispossessed, the millions of indigenous peoples, and we call on our brothers and sisters to join this struggle for work, land, housing, food, health care, education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice, and peace. We will not stop fighting until we achieve these basic demands of our people by opposing the international trade agreements that threaten our communal lands and economic sovereignty."

— Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), First Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle, December 1993

Based on the passage, the opposition to "international trade agreements" was most directly a response to which of the following late twentieth-century developments?

The following is an excerpt from a resolution of the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in December 1986:

'We must adjust the economic structure, focusing on three major programs: agriculture and food, consumer goods production, and exports. We must broaden economic cooperation with foreign countries, utilize diverse forms of investment, and encourage all economic sectors—state-owned, collective, and private—to actively participate in the development of the nation's commodity economy, while shifting from centralized bureaucratic management to a state-managed market mechanism.'

The economic policies described in the excerpt most directly reflect which of the following global developments in the late twentieth century?

"We must protect our forests, which are our livelihood. The trees give us soil, water, and pure air. If the loggers cut them down, our hillsides will slide and our water sources will dry up. We will wrap our arms around the trees to prevent the axes from striking them."

—Adapted from statements by participants in the Chipko movement, India, 1973

The grassroots activism described in the passage is best understood as an example of which of the following post-1900 global developments?

“For us, agriculture is not just an industry to be measured by market efficiency or tariff rates. It is the foundation of our culture, our community, and our food sovereignty. The World Trade Organization (WTO) forces open our markets to multinational agribusinesses, flooding our country with cheap, subsidized foreign imports that destroy the livelihoods of smallholder peasants. We demand that agriculture be excluded from WTO trade liberalization agreements.”

— Korean Peasants League, declaration issued during protests against the World Trade Organization, early 2000s

The arguments of the Korean Peasants League in the passage are best understood as a response to which of the following global economic developments?

"The Parties to this Agreement,

Recognizing that their relations in the field of trade and economic endeavour should be conducted with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand, and expanding the production of and trade in goods and services...

Being desirous of contributing to these objectives by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international trade relations...

Agree as follows:

Article I: Establishment of the Organization: The World Trade Organization (hereinafter referred to as 'the WTO') is hereby established."

— Preamble to the Marrakesh Agreement, 1994

Which of the following developments in the late twentieth century most directly facilitated the goals expressed in the agreement?

"To restore confidence, countries must address the root causes of their problems. This requires reforming their financial sectors, improving corporate governance, and opening their markets to international competition. The IMF's programs are designed not to punish, but to assist countries in rebuilding their economies on a sounder, more stable foundation."

—Michel Camdessus, Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), address to the United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1998

The economic reforms described in the passage are most representative of which of the following global developments in the late twentieth century?

"The World Social Forum is an open meeting place for... groups and movements of civil society that are opposed to neoliberalism and to domination of the world by capital and any form of imperialism, and are committed to building a planetary society directed to fruitful relations among Mankind and between Mankind and the Earth."

—World Social Forum Charter of Principles, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 2001

Which of the following developments after 1900 is most directly reflected in the passage?

The following is an excerpt from a speech by the president of a Southeast Asian country in 1996, discussing national economic strategy:

"In this era of global competition, our nation cannot afford to rely solely on traditional agricultural exports. We must integrate ourselves into the global manufacturing network. By establishing free-trade zones, offering tax incentives to foreign enterprises, and investing in the skills of our workforce, we have attracted major multinational corporations from North America and East Asia. Today, the components of a single consumer electronic device are designed in California, manufactured in our factories, assembled in China, and sold worldwide. Our integration into this global division of labor is the key to our future prosperity."

The economic strategy described in the passage was most directly facilitated by which of the following developments in the late twentieth century?

Speech by William S. Gaud, Administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 1968:

"Developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran. I call it the Green Revolution. This new revolution—based on new seeds, chemical fertilizers, and modern technology—is spreading rapidly. In Pakistan, India, and Turkey, the yields of wheat and rice have reached record heights, bringing the hope of self-sufficiency to millions of people."

Based on the passage, which of the following was the primary goal of the developments described as the "Green Revolution"?

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."
— World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, 1987

The definition of sustainable development presented in the excerpt was primarily a response to which of the following global developments in the late twentieth century?

“NAFTA is a death sentence for the indigenous peoples of Mexico, who are being offered up as cheap labor in the service of transnational corporations. This agreement represents the final blow to our communal lands, which have sustained us for generations, replacing our traditional corn production with cheap imports from the north.”
—Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), Declaration from the Lacandon Jungle, 1994

Which of the following arguments against globalization is most directly supported by the passage?

Read the passage below and answer the following question.

"We, the Ogoni People, note:
That over thirty billion dollars’ worth of oil and gas has been extracted from our land by multinational corporations since 1958;
That in return, the Ogoni people have received virtually nothing in terms of development, infrastructure, or employment;
That the search for oil has caused severe environmental degradation, destroying our agricultural lands and fishing waters, which are our traditional livelihood;
That we have been politically marginalized and denied the right to self-determination.
We hereby demand political autonomy for the Ogoni people within the Nigerian federation, and the right to control and use a fair proportion of our economic resources for our own development."
—Adapted from the *Ogoni Bill of Rights*, 1990

Based on the passage, the demands of the Ogoni people most directly reflect which of the following global developments in the late twentieth century?

"That the search for oil has caused severe land degradation, food shortage, air and water pollution, and the destruction of the agricultural and fishing economy of the Ogoni people... That the multinational oil companies, particularly Shell and Chevron, have operated in Ogoniland without any regard for the environment or the local population, while extracting billions of dollars in wealth."
—Ogoni Bill of Rights, presented to the government and people of Nigeria, 1990

The claims made in the passage are best understood in the context of which of the following post-1900 developments?

“What is at stake is the cultural identity of all our nations, it is the right of each country to have its own culture... A society which abandons the means of depicting itself to the technologies of its time, which does not feed its own imagery, is a society condemned to subjection.”

— François Mitterrand, President of France, speech addressing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations, 1993

The concerns expressed in the passage are best understood as a reaction to which of the following late twentieth-century developments?

"When we began, we were addressing that which was most immediate: the lack of firewood, clean drinking water, balanced diets, shelter, and income. We soon realized that the degradation of the environment was not just a technical problem, but a symptom of a larger governance crisis. A society that does not manage its resources sustainably is a society that lacks democratic space, human rights, and peace. Therefore, planting trees became a symbol for the struggle to democratize our nation and protect our communal heritage."

—Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmental and political activist, Nobel Peace Prize Lecture, 2004

Which of the following historical developments after 1900 is best illustrated by the passage?

Source: Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, address to the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972.

"We do not wish to impoverish the environment any further and yet we cannot for a moment forget the grim poverty of large numbers of people. Are not poverty and need the greatest polluters? . . . How can we speak to those who live in villages and in slums about keeping the oceans clean when their own lives are contaminated at the source? The environment cannot be improved in conditions of poverty. Nor can poverty be eradicated without the use of science and technology."

Based on the passage, the perspective expressed by Indira Gandhi most directly reflects which of the following debates in the late twentieth century?

Source: Ken Saro-Wiwa, Nigerian author and environmental activist, address to the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), 1992.

"We are going to demand our rights. We are going to demand that the oil companies pay for the destruction of our environment. For thirty-five years, Shell has taken billions of dollars from our land, but they have left us only with polluted air, ruined soil, and poisoned water where fish can no longer live. Our traditional way of life, based on farming and fishing, has been destroyed by this environmental degradation. The Nigerian government has collaborated with these multinational corporations to oppress our people. We must organize and protest peacefully to defend our environment and our future."

The protests and arguments described in the passage are best understood as a response to which of the following developments in the late twentieth century?

The following is an excerpt from remarks made by Deng Xiaoping, the leader of the Chinese Communist Party, during his tour of southern China in 1992:

'Whether the emphasis is on planning or on market forces is not the essential distinction between socialism and capitalism. A planned economy is not definitionally socialist, because there is planning under capitalism; a market economy is not definitionally capitalist, because there are markets under socialism. Both planning and market forces are merely economic means to develop productivity.'

Based on the passage, the economic policies advocated by Deng Xiaoping contributed most directly to which of the following developments in late twentieth-century China?

Gustavo Gutiérrez, Peruvian priest and theologian, *A Theology of Liberation*, 1971

'But the poor person does not exist as an individual act of destiny. The poor person is the product of a system. The poor person is a resource, a class... The poverty of the poor is not a call to generous actions, but a demand for the construction of a different social order... Authentic development for Latin America cannot be achieved within the framework of the existing capitalist system; rather, it requires a transition that prioritizes the economic and social liberation of the marginalized, who live in a state of institutionalized violence.'

The ideas expressed in the passage most directly reflect which of the following twentieth-century developments?