Tüm alıştırma soruları

Below are three distinct decisions made under specific professional circumstances. Which general principle most directly justifies each decision?

Consider the following argument:

Ethicist: A common argument among artificial intelligence researchers is that automated decision-making systems will inevitably eliminate human bias because algorithms lack personal prejudice. However, this defense overlooks how these systems are trained. Historical training datasets reflect centuries of systemic societal disparities, and an algorithm trained on such data will faithfully replicate and codify those disparities in its predictions. Therefore, the belief that machine automation alone guarantees impartiality in social outcomes is fundamentally mistaken.

Match each excerpted statement from the ethicist's argument to its precise structural role in the method of reasoning.

Read the following two excerpts outlining distinct theories from different academic disciplines:

Excerpt A
According to Thomas Kuhn, scientific progress is not purely cumulative. Instead, disciplines spend long periods in 'normal science,' operating under a universally accepted paradigm that dictates which problems are legitimate. Over time, anomalies—observations that the current paradigm cannot explain—accumulate. Initially ignored or dismissed, these anomalies eventually induce a profound crisis of confidence within the scientific community. This crisis is resolved only through a sudden, discontinuous 'paradigm shift,' wherein an entirely new theoretical framework abruptly overthrows and replaces the old, redefining the discipline's fundamental boundaries.

Excerpt B
The theory of punctuated equilibrium challenges the view of steady, gradual evolution. It posits that species spend the vast majority of their geological history in morphological stasis, exhibiting essentially no physical change. However, as localized ecological stresses silently build over time, a population's existing physiological traits become increasingly mismatched with its environment. This growing evolutionary friction reaches a critical threshold, often manifesting as a sudden environmental cataclysm. This triggers a rapid, explosive burst of speciation in isolated populations. Consequently, novel descendant species emerge abruptly in the fossil record, completely superseding their ancestors.

Based on the structural analogies between the two chronological models presented, match each conceptual element from Excerpt A with its precise logical counterpart in Excerpt B.

Read the following two passages regarding the philosophy of mind and the nature of consciousness.

Passage A
The persistence of the "hard problem" of consciousness highlights a fundamental limit in current scientific paradigms. Neurobiological accounts excel at explaining the "easy problems"—such as how the brain integrates information, focuses attention, or controls behavior. However, they fundamentally fail to explain why these purely physical processes are accompanied by an inner, subjective experience, often referred to as qualia. To argue that a specific pattern of neural oscillation causes the conscious experience of seeing the color red is to merely point out a correlation, not an actual mechanism of generation. We can easily conceive of an organism physically identical to a human in every neurological detail that nevertheless completely lacks this inner life. Because subjective experience is inherently private and irreducibly qualitative, it cannot be meaningfully reduced to the public, quantitative properties of physical matter. Therefore, rather than waiting for a neurobiological breakthrough that attempts to bridge an impossible gap, consciousness must be recognized as a fundamental feature of the universe, irreducible to basic neurological mechanisms, much in the same way that mass, spacetime, or electromagnetic charge are treated as foundational primitives in physics.

Passage B
The assertion that subjective experience requires a novel, non-physical explanation relies on an outdated dualistic intuition that systematically misinterprets how complex natural systems operate. What certain philosophers term the "hard problem" of consciousness is essentially a cognitive illusion generated by our own brain's self-monitoring interface. When researchers eventually map out the complete functional architecture of the brain—exhaustively detailing how sensory information is categorized, discriminated, and integrated to produce complex behavioral outputs—there will simply be no "extra" mystical phenomenon left over that requires a separate explanation. The deep-seated conviction that an unbridgeable explanatory gap exists between matter and mind stems entirely from our inherent inability to intuitively grasp how billions of distributed, interacting micro-processes can yield a unified, seamless sense of self. It is a failure of human imagination, not a failure of the scientific method. As neuroscience continues to steadily translate abstract cognitive functions into rigorous, testable computational models, the supposed profound mystery of qualitative experience will eventually dissolve entirely, revealing it to be nothing more than a highly specific, intricate class of emergent physical processes operating within a biological machine.

Based on the arguments presented in the passages, match each claim made by Author A with the evaluation Author B would most likely apply to it.

Match each of the following arguments with the supplementary finding that provides the strongest logical support for its stated conclusion.

For each of the incomplete arguments in the left column, select the missing premise from the right column that, if assumed, allows the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn.

Match each administrative or legal decision with the general normative principle that most directly justifies it:

Consider the following argument:

Paleoanthropologist: Excavators at the cave site argue that the discovery of micro-incised bone tubes demonstrates that Upper Paleolithic hominins developed formal musical notation systems. However, this interpretation is unwarranted. Micro-computed tomography reveals that the incisions exhibit irregular spacing and microscopic striations identical to butchery-tool deflection marks rather than intentional measuring increments. Furthermore, while the hollowed bones could conceivably produce resonant acoustic frequencies when blown into, any slender, naturally marrow-hollowed avian ulna produces acoustic resonance regardless of whether it was intentionally shaped as an instrument. Thus, the artifacts provide no compelling evidence of symbolic or musical culture.

Match each statement from the argument on the left with its precise argumentative role or method of reasoning on the right.

A municipal policy research team is evaluating four arguments concerning urban infrastructure and planning. Match each argument on the left with its corresponding abstract logical pattern or fallacy on the right.

Marek: Forest management agencies should suspend all prescribed burn programs in old-growth pine ecosystems during drought cycles. Although low-intensity fire reduces understory fuel load, severely dry soil conditions cause even controlled fires to destroy the subterranean mycorrhizal networks essential for mature tree survival.

Sari: Prescribed burning is indeed risky during extreme drought, but completely suspending it is far more dangerous. If understory fuels accumulate during extended dry periods, an inevitable lightning strike will ignite a catastrophic canopy fire that completely destroys both mature trees and mycorrhizal networks.

Match each proposition with the relationship between the positions taken by Marek and Sari.

Match each of the following research arguments with the supplementary finding that most effectively strengthens its causal conclusion.

Consider the following argument:

Plant biologist: Many botanists maintain that when tomato plants are attacked by herbivores, they warn neighboring plants primarily through underground mycorrhizal fungal networks. They point out that neighboring plants connected by fungal hyphae activate defensive genes faster than isolated plants. However, this interpretation overlooks that airborne volatile chemicals released during herbivory travel rapidly and trigger identical defensive responses in nearby plants. In experiments where airflow between plants was completely blocked while fungal connections were preserved, neighboring plants exhibited no increase in defensive gene expression. Thus, the accelerated defense activation observed in previous studies is driven by airborne signaling rather than underground fungal networks.

Match each excerpt from the biologist's argument to its precise argumentative role.

Match each incomplete argument on the left with the sufficient assumption on the right that logically guarantees its conclusion. Which sufficient assumption properly completes each argument?

Match each of the following deductive arguments with the statement that most accurately characterizes its structural validity, flaw, or underlying logical form:

Read the following two passages regarding the philosophy of science and the epistemic status of scientific theories.

Passage A
The remarkable predictive success of modern scientific theories cannot be dismissed as mere coincidence. Scientific realism posits that our best, most mature scientific theories are at least approximately true descriptions of both the observable and unobservable aspects of the world. When a theory successfully predicts a novel phenomenon—such as the bending of starlight by massive objects or the existence of a new subatomic particle—it is highly improbable that the theory is fundamentally false yet miraculously produces such precise empirical predictions. Therefore, the theoretical entities posited by these theories, from electrons to spacetime curvature, must genuinely exist in the mind-independent world. To deny this is to render the overarching success of the scientific enterprise a completely inexplicable miracle. The realist framework insists that science fundamentally aims for absolute truth, and its progressive accumulation of predictively successful theories is compelling evidence that it is gradually uncovering the actual underlying structure of reality, rather than merely cataloging observable regularities.

Passage B
Constructive empiricism offers a more modest and epistemologically secure account of the scientific enterprise, avoiding the sweeping metaphysical commitments demanded by realism. According to this view, the objective of science is not to uncover the absolute truth about unobservable reality, but rather to develop theories that are "empirically adequate." A theory is empirically adequate if what it says about observable phenomena is true—that is, if it successfully "saves the phenomena." When a theory successfully predicts novel events, this success merely confirms its empirical adequacy, not the underlying literal truth of its postulated unobservable entities. The history of science is littered with predictively successful theories—such as the caloric theory of heat or the luminiferous aether—whose unobservable entities were later universally discarded. Thus, inferring the actual existence of unobservable entities solely from a theory's predictive success is a logically perilous leap unjustified by the available evidence. We can embrace a scientific theory as practically useful, structurally robust, and completely adequate for guiding empirical inquiry without committing to the dogmatic belief that its theoretical constructs map onto hidden, unobservable realities.

Based on the perspectives presented in the passages, match each assertion derived from Passage A (on the left) with the most likely response or evaluation from the author of Passage B (on the right).

Match each of the following arguments with the supplementary finding that most effectively strengthens its central conclusion.

Below are four complex arguments from varied fields. Match each argument to the foundational unstated premise that must be true for its conclusion to be properly drawn.

An analyst of formal logic categorizes arguments according to their deductive validity or specific fallacious pattern. Match each argument below to the structural representation that accurately characterizes its logical form.

Analyze the following four discrete textual fragments, which are drawn from different academic disciplines. Match each excerpt to the abstract proposition that most accurately synthesizes its underlying, unstated thesis. (Note: Two propositions are incorrect distractors.)

Kendra: Proprietary probabilistic genotyping software used to analyze complex crime-scene DNA mixtures must be fully disclosed, including its underlying source code, to defense counsel in criminal trials. Due process requires that an accused individual have the means to inspect and challenge the algorithmic validity of software whose outputs serve as foundational prosecution evidence. Without source code access, meaningful cross-examination of the software's reliability is impossible.

Liam: Requiring commercial developers to surrender proprietary source code undermines trade secret protections and disincentivizes developers from investing in high-precision forensic tools. Defendants' rights to challenge evidence are adequately preserved if developers provide comprehensive validation study reports and make executable binaries available for independent defense testing. Complete code disclosure creates intellectual property theft risks without providing necessary testing benefits that cannot already be achieved through empirical validation tests.

Match each proposition regarding forensic software in criminal trials with the statement that accurately characterizes the commitments of both speakers.